Castration

For quite some time, humans have had the reputation of always carrying out sins and criminal activity. In many societies, they have rules and regulation that govern them and have specific measures that they take once a person carries out a particular negative criminal act. Traditional societies have been on the frontline towards ensuring that criminal activities are minimized efficiently and effectively in their locations. There are different methods of punishment that exist and the most common ones are imprisonment or death.However, contemporary societies have en to it that there be an introduction of another means of punishment and this Is through castration (Somerville, 2013). Castration Is a method of punishment that involves the authorities mutilating or interfering with the anatomy and hormones of those convicted of certain sexual offenses. Right now there are several states that practice this form of punishment via chemical castration or surgical. These states include Georgia, Florida, California, Louisiana, Montana, Oregon, Texas, and Wisconsin.These states allow chemical and surgical castration as a condition for a educed sentence, which I don't agree with. Chemical castration Is the administration of a medication given Intravenously or orally called AMP, which Is commonly known as Depraver, this medication is prescribed to women for various issues such as birth control, uterine, menstrual, menopausal issues but when used by men it decreases the hormone testosterone to the pre-puberty level. Health officials state that this procedure works by minimizing or reducing the desire, interest, libido and making it difficult to perform sexual activities.Although this is said to work it has several side effects such as blood clots, menopausal symptoms, cardiovascular, blood level, blood pressure and allergic reactions, the effects are reversible. After the person stops taking the medication. Surgical castration is the removal of a man's testicles or a women's o varies and is not reversible. Do not see where removing this part of the anatomy would prevent sexual activity. In my opinion, I do not believe that removing or lowering the hormone levels of men or women reduces or prevents sexual crimes, but I do not have a problem with using castration as a punishment to repeat offenders.I do agree that pedophilia and rapist deserve this as punishment and this goes for men and women who commit these hideous crimes. In researching castration as a punishment I found no information pertaining to women being castrated only men, and if this is the case then I disagree I feel this should pertain to both sexes as both commit these terrible crimes although more men are charged, tried, convicted and sentenced, then women. Various debates have existed on whether this method of punishment is fair, Inhumane, violates the eighth amendment of cruel and unusual punishment.I have several Issues that I will attempt to address on the pros and cons of castration as a punishment and is it appropriate or violates human rights in my own opinion. Many people have argued that this method of punishment is not fair, and it is inhumane while others argue that this form of punishment is just and appropriate for it assists in punishing and deterring criminals who engage In or attempt to commit these hideous sexual crimes (Golden, 2013). In my pollen, I have no sympathy for these Individuals as they had or punishment.One issue that I have is if we are going to mutilate a person for the crimes they commit, then why aren't we setting standards for all crimes committed, for instance if we are to mutilate and castrate for certain sexual crimes then wouldn't it be fair to mutilate or remove an offenders hand or fingers for robbery or burglary, or surgically removing someone's foot or legs for escaping. The other issue I have is forcefully removing a particular anatomy if an offender is a first time offender. What happens in a situation of innocence or wrongl y accused.There are so many cases where individuals are tried, convicted, sentenced, that are innocent, and years later proven and released, what happens in this case if we castrate, we cannot reverse this procedure once completed. I think repeat offenders should receive this punishment. In 2004, a man named David Wayne Jones, previously employed as a counselor at the east Dallas Ymca confessed to molesting over 40 young boys agreed to be punished by surgical castration, he would make the second offender to have had this reoccurred performed since the law was passed.Although he voluntarily agreed to have this procedure done and was later released, I do not agree that these offenders should have the choice to have this as a sentence reduction. I feel that these criminals should have this procedure done in addition especially when it comes to violating young, helpless, defenseless, innocent children. Another argument that can be used to show the fact that these people ought to be cast rated is the issue of repeat offenders. Many cases exist where the person who carried out the raping rime carries out the same mistake again and again (Becker, 2012).After being caught and imprisoned for the first time, these people have the ability to feel as if they did not deserve the punishment and as a sign of rebellion may rape again. This matter has existed for a very long time. However, if a person is castrated after carrying out the crime for the first time, then there is no chance that he can carry out the crime again but the case has to be 100% proven guilty, I would not want to have the thought of castrating a innocent individual on my head.Castration ought to be a sentencing option to the Judges and this is for the fact that when a person is sentenced to punishment of castration, he goes through much pain and suffering that may be effective enough to act as a warning and deterrent to other people that may have had similar intentions. Moreover, this method of sentencing ensures that the offender does not carry out the crime again even after the release (Tracy, 2013). There are different cases that have come up over the years where the offender may eel obliged and guilty to a point that he practices voluntary castration.Voluntary castration is a method of castration where the Judge does not instruct the prosecutors to castrate the criminal but rather offers it as a suggestion. Now this I agree with 100% and have no issues or objections. The criminals that go for this option ought not to receive a shorter sentence and those that do not should receive the maximum time aloud. This is a very sensitive subject that has to evaluated more in depths before it can be completely considered, it has to be tweaked to perfection.

Message to Garcia Synopsis Essay

The message to Garcia describes the average human mindset, action and reactions toward a given task. Many men and women from past to present want work, status, money and reputation; but feel work is not needed. It describes not all but many situations pertaining to people having lack of initiative. In this book Elbert Hubbard states people on average will ask one or many question about the task being given to them. How I do it, where can I find it, who can I get to help, what time does it have to be done; are all examples. People get lazy and complacent, instead of getting some initiative and finding out the answers to their questions themselves. Message to Garcia isn’t saying every task has to be accomplished but, rather ideations of how problems could be solved through statistics and opinions. Many situations Hubbard has explained have facts about men and woman in today’s society. How many times have we heard â€Å"Go take this to†¦Ã¢â‚¬  and the person being tasked asks multiple questions about the task the he himself could very well find. By asking questions the employer or task giver is being held up from completing other tasks he has been issued, to explain to this person where, when, why, how. In a lot of cases today, by the time we have completed explaining the task; we ourselves could’ve completed it. By no means is Hubbard expressing to us readers we shouldn’t task out our subordinates but do our jobs as well. On the other hand he is also elaborating on his belief no matter the details, many or few, the task should be done when given to. I feel Message to Garcia was trying to get a point across to us readers; that many of us desire great things but, in order to achieve great things we must do great works. We cannot want and not give anything; little effort will bring little fortune. I don’t believe the book is trying to tell us how we should go about our business day to day, yet allowing us to ponder ideas on how to eradicate these issues. Make pragmatic decisions during tasks given rather than giving up early or not doing it at all. By giving our undivided attention to our job, and not stopping until it is complete or no other outcome is possible to accomplish it. I believe everybody plays a role in a job; it is everyone’s duty to do their part and not pass it to another person or not complete it. When we all do our jobs an elliptical motion continues, rolling smoothly.

Business Implications of Security on the Internet Essay

Business Implications of Security on the Internet - Essay Example Loss of revenue is one of the major business implications of security on the internet. Lack of internet security can lead to loss of revenue in two main ways. Firstly, if the internet server that a business uses is compromised, hackers can (in most cases) gain access to the businesses financial information. Such information can be used to pilfer business funds and this leads to loss of revenue. Secondly, in cases where businesses rely a great deal on the internet and use e-commerce sites to sell their goods/services, a compromised internet network or site automatically leads to loss of revenue since such a site is rendered inoperable and consumers are not able to access the site (Ringwelski, 2010). There has also been loss of productivity on human personnel because of internet security measures taken by company. Due to the rise of internet security breaches, businesses may be forced to implement certain measures that ultimately lower all their employees’ productivity. For inst ance, employees may be asked to conduct various security checks before accessing the internet and this may be time consuming and lower productivity. Another major repercussion of internet security on businesses is the potential risk of the businesses reputation being damaged. In cases, where a business’s internet security is breached, hackers can damage the company’s reputation by posting false information about the company on the compromised site, or stealing the information of the company’s clients. For most businesses, this risk can be even more debilitating than the loss of business revenue. This is because while a business may recover from a loss of revenue, a damaged reputation can cause customers, investors and shareholders to lose faith in the business and withdraw their support. The loss of such support often leads to the collapse of the business (Shoniregun, 2005). Evidently, implications such as the ones discussed herein can lead to businesses being d amaged extensively. For these reasons, different businesses have devised various solutions to deal with internet security. For instance, some companies have developed information-sharing partnerships with various government agencies. Such partnerships enable companies to rely on the government’s law enforcement abilities to detect and prevent breaches in their internet security. In such partnerships, businesses rely on government law agencies to provide them with any information that can improve their internet security and the

Reading Response # 3 Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Reading Response # 3 - Assignment Example The loss of a few thousand innocent lives was something which radically changed the way Americans think about Muslims and their religion. In order to argue whether there is really a clash of civilization as suggested by Huntington or the reaction is just Muslim or Arab Phobia, it is important to understand the roots of this conflict and how this difference emerged. The theory of clash of civilization is basically based upon the notion of clash of cultures and civilizations with each other. Underlying this theory is the belief that future conflicts between people will be based upon culture of people and that democracy or free markets is not the only ideology of the world. This notion therefore suggests that the primary axis of conflict will be religion as well as the culture of the people. Considering this position, the post 9/11 scenario may not seem as a clash of civilizations but rather Muslim or Arab phobia. The obvious reasons for the attack of 9/11 were based upon the belief that US has supported or illegally occupied and plundered the resources belonging to the Muslim world. This conflict was however by few groups against the State rather than a Muslim State against America. The videos suggested that there is a general Arab and Muslim Phobia because in the War against terror many Muslim countries actually supported the US in its war against Al-Qaeda and other extremist groups. In a way, the Muslim world on the whole, except for a few countries, was officially supporting the US and its war against Islamic extremist groups. There is therefore a general fear regarding Muslims and how may they create a threat for Americans within America. People generally believe that Muslims may harm them and therefore in order to avoid being harmed, Muslims should be labeled and wear bands so that they can be identified. There is a

Contract Creation and Management Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Contract Creation and Management - Assignment Example C-S claims quality of deliverables from Span has been unacceptable and behind schedule. C-S has demanded immediate transfer of all unfinished codes as it cannot afford to reschedule slips. C-S has also asserted the recession of the contract. Span, on the other hand, claims user requirements have grown disproportionately. Additionally, span claims C-S’s review time and approval was affected due to change in the structure of project management. In the simulation between Span Systems and C-S, both parties had a valid contract. C-S offered Span Systems a contract to create banking software to market within one year. Span accepted the legal offer and promised to deliver the software on time. However, there was a breach of contract between the two parties, and the contract required restructuring and clarification. When creating the contract, every clause should be fiercely negotiated as this will help both parties reach a consensus easily. Each party did not have a clear understanding of the specific requirements of the project. The final contract did not clearly define the roles and it was also ambiguous. There are various principles that apply to such issues. In this case, the contract should clearly define each party’s role as this will help in understanding roles. A successful business partnership can be achieved only if a contract is carefully reviewed before sign-off. Clarity of purpose is an essential aspect that ensures successful contracts. C-S asserted the recession of the contract with Span, but Span developed some negotiation points that could help save the project. There are contract clauses that can be used to start negotiations between C-S and Span. It is essential to analyze the pros and cons of each contract clause in consideration for the termination of the contract: requirements change which refers to changes in the user and system requirements since originally determined in the system study stage, substantial

Staffing shortages and medication errors Research Paper

Staffing shortages and medication errors - Research Paper Example This shortage may be attributed to the fact that most nurses shun this job due to unfavorable working conditions in hospitals, nurses moving to outpatient care, managed care service and some into business. In addition, nursing does not attract many young applicants, thus the retiring nurses have no other people to replace them. In another dimension, nursing teachers are not paid well. This leads to less nurses taking up the teaching job, subsequently nursing schools enroll few students who will be well attended to by the few staff (Garrett, 2008). Research has proven that some of the leading causes of severe effects in inpatient care may be directly attributed to the current nursing shortage in hospitals. The result of understaffing of nurses may lead to medication errors that may end up causing deaths among patients. Shortage of nurses in hospitals leads to patient monitoring and pain checking being ignored. This comes about due to the fact that the few available nurses are being ov erwhelmed by their work, and may end up forgetting about other patients, something that may be fatal if the patients are in a critical state or may lack the time to conduct the routine check up on some patients (The point of care 2001). Shortage of nurses may also lead to the available workers being overworked by working overtime, something they cannot refuse due to the fact that according to the American Nursing Association, they are liable to losing their jobs or their working licenses being revoked. Due to overworking the nurses accumulate stress and fatigue may lead to them giving medication to the wrong patient or giving wrong doses or even missing a dose entirely. Fewer nurses may also lead to neglect of patients by the nurses. This may be seen in that, in the process of attending to a patient, a more seriously ill patient may be brought in, and this may lead to the nurse abandoning the patient. Nurse under staffing has also been established to be having an effect on urinary t ract infections and pneumonia. Studies show that nurse staffing and have adverse effects. The class of care rendered to most patients, and their safety is jeopardized by the Shortages of nurses in medical facilities. This problem is brought about by the fact that nurses concentrate on many patients at a time, thus inhibiting patients from acquiring quality attention. Understaffing of nurses leads to them not having a conducive working environment. Most hospitals necessitate them to work overtime leading to burn outs. This is attributed to the fact that nurses are not able to handle the pressure from the working environment. This pressure results in reduced performance. Overworking leads to medication errors that nurses do not provide when prescribing drugs, administering drugs or carrying out medical tests. Also, nurses do not take the right precaution when caring for patients, which ends up affecting patients’ result and may lead to death (Garrett, 2008). Quite a number of p atients suffering from acute diseases die as a result of medication errors. There are legislations passed to help prevent medication error. Medication safety language was added to the tax relief and health care act of 2006. Inclusion of hospital quality requirement in the bill allows patients to get information they need; that is, report from hospital illustrating whether it meets established safety standard; thus people are able to protect themselves

Vaccination Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Vaccination - Assignment Example On the contrary, in West Virginia and Mississippi there are no laws that mandate vaccination. To that effect, some parents choose not to vaccinate their children because they believe that it may result in autism. Advocates of immunization claim that the government should not intervene in personal medical choices. The opponents of vaccination claim that the immune system of the children can deal naturally with the majority of the infections. The Mayo Clinic pointed out that natural immunity is more complete than a series of vaccines. Some guardians usually do not want their children to be vaccinated because the process of vaccination introduces foreign particles in the children’s immune system resulting in side effects like autism (Plotkin, 2006). More to the point, the flu vaccine have been found to contain thimerosal that is packaged in multi-dose vials. When the health workers draw individual doses, they leave the vaccine susceptible for to contamination each time the rubber is punctured. The presence of this preservative in the vaccine was found by (Andrew & McCarthy, 2010) to cause autism. An introduction of mercury in the body affects the nervous system resulting in autistic like symptoms. It causes the dysregulation of the immune system of the child affecting neurodevelopment. Autism signs are evidenced (Mesmere, 2007). Even with introduction of the pre-filled syringes, certain medical that find it expensive still the thimerosal as a preservative. The 1998 Lancet paper reported that immunization is not safe. Parents of the 8 out of 12 whose children were studies asserted that 14 months after receiving the combination measles-mumps-rubella vaccine the kids exhibited symptoms of autism. Moreover, Plotkin, Gerber, and Offit (2009) argue that the measles-mumps-rubella vaccine allows the entry of encelophalopathic causes autism by damaging the intestinal lining. The

Caring for Mentally Disordered Offenders Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Caring for Mentally Disordered Offenders - Essay Example The abnormality in the brain functioning is evident in many people. World Health Organization (WHO) statistics show 33% of people living in most countries has this problem (Lindstedt et al. 2006, p.334). Mental disability leads people to commit crimes without their knowledge. Causes The main causes of mental disorder are not clear. Theories trying to explain the causes exist but the truth is that there is no one known cause. The circumstances under which people suffer from mental disorder cut across biological factors such as inheritance, psychological factors, for example, depression and the environment in which people live (Rodriguez et al., 2006). In order to control or effectively care for affected people in the society, it is essential to know the cause of the illness to the person. Understanding ones, psychology will ease the way one relates with the affected people. Therefore, it is essential to elaborate on the causes of mental illness. Biological factors Studies show that ab normal balance of some chemicals found in the brain known as neurotransmitters causes the illness (Rodriguez et al. 2006, p.413). The chemicals enable communication in the brain. Any kinds of injury to these essential devices lead to mental problems. The spread of mental disorder can pass down family generations. ... Other factors include prolonged substance abuse and poor nutrition (Mason et al., 2008). Psychological and environmental factors When a child is growing, proper care is necessary to prevent it from any form of physical abuse or emotional. Sexual abuse may also cause problems in the future. Neglecting the children at a premature age is not recommendable as this may make them not to relate with others. The environment the people live in is crucial (Mason et al. 2008, p.122). Mental illness may arise due to stress caused by death or divorce, family wrangles and any other condition that may lead to low esteem. Having high expectations may lead to depression if the expectations are not achievable. Stress arises due to failure to fulfill the societal high expectations. During pregnancy, the mother may expose the unborn child to the risks of having mental problems in his old age (Mason et al., 2008). If the mother has exposure to stress, trauma of any hardship lifestyle during pregnancy, th e effects may later cause mental illness to the child. Care for offenders Following the review of the causes for mental disorder, the care of the affected is necessary. The attendance to the victims depends on the initial cause and demand for different treatment. From the overview of the causes of mental illness, it is evident that a good number of the cases may not be the fault of the affected people (Bowring-lossock, 2006). It is, therefore, unfair to treat the offenders unfairly since they are under the effects of the illness they suffer. Studies show that most of the offenders face unfair treatment in many institutions. Implications arising from caring for mentally disordered offenders One of the areas to consider in understanding the treatment that mentally ill

Four foods common throughout Mexico Essay Example for Free

Four foods common throughout Mexico Essay Corn, and corn tortillas in particular, are common throughout all of Mexico. Corn tortillas are considered the â€Å"bread† of Mexican culture. Beans are almost always served as a side dish with all meals. Chilies, squash and tomatoes are all indigenous foods that thrive in the arid regions and are used for flavoring and as side dishes throughout the country. Chilies are also often integrated into main dishes. B. Comparison and Contrast of foods from three regions of Mexico Food from the Mexican plains region is typically more heavy with fats and starches. The region’s cuisine relies on meat and dairy products (most notably beef and cheese) in addition to the traditional beans and corn found elsewhere throughout the country. Tropical Mexico relies heavily on the fish and seafood that are abundant along the coast for its main dishes. It also incorporates food locally grown on plantations such as coffee, bananas, avocado, limes, tomatoes and tropical fruits such as mango, tamarind and coconut. Ceviche, a blend of raw fish, lime juice and vegetables, is very popular. Southern Mexican cuisine uses chayotes and cactus and relies heavily on chicken dishes, often marinated. Mole sauce, using chilies and chocolate originated in Southern Mexico and is used as a ceremonial dish at baptisms, weddings, and the Day of the Dead festivals. Even grasshoppers, which are quite abundant, are often eaten fried. Beans and avocados are also used in many dishes. Meat from goats and pork along with chilies and tortillas are often found in dishes from all regions. Chocolate and vanilla are two items that put Mexico on the map and quite popular throughout the country as flavorings. Chocolate is used in sauces as well as for drinking and often infused with cinnamon. Mexican cuisine is very reliant on the food sources most abundant in the region and so range the gamut from seafood to cactus. 6. Comparison and Contrast of food and customs of India’s Northern and Southern regions In Northern India wheat, tea, masala, pickled fruits and vegetables, garlic and eggs are commonly used. Most dishes are prepared by boiling, stewing or frying. Unleavened bread and a vegetable dish are served at breakfast and lunch. Dinner is the same with the additional of a few extra dishes. All meals are served with tea and lemonade in the summer. Hydrogenated oils are used for cooking. In Southern India, banana leaves serve as plates and boiled rice comes with every course. Vegetables and lentils make up the first two courses while rice and yogurt are in the third course. All are accompanied by pickles, chutney and fried wafers. Dessert is only served on special occasions. Coconut, plantain and fish are often used and tend to be spicy. They use peanut and sesame oil in addition to hydrogenated vegetable oil and prepare dishes by steaming. Rice, coffee, chutney fruits and vegetables are integral to the cuisine. Grains cooked into cereals are popular. Chickpeas and lentils are used in nearly every meal. Spicy vegetable curries, deep-fried, salty foods and sweets are popular as snacks. The foods of both regions are highly vegetarian, per religious beliefs. Neither region eats beef nor traditionally drinks alcohol. The spices and condiments heavy in Southern Indian cuisine are the influence of Jews and Christians. In the North, wheat is the staple food while rice reigns in the South. Northern Indians drink tea with their meals while Southern Indians prefer coffee. Since Pakistan was once part of India, the cuisine of the Northern region is very similar to that of Pakistani food. The foods of both regions are influenced heavily by their respective religions as well as the influx of foreign traders in earlier centuries. 7. A. Five foods indigenous to Caribbean In Jamaica, dukunnu is made with cornmeal, sugar, raisins spices and coconut and wrapped in banana leaves and boiled or baked. Jamaica also uses turn cornmeal made of cornmeal blended with peas, spices, coconut milk, saltfish and sometimes other ingredients. Peppers are indigenous all over the Caribbean and are commonly used to spice up dishes such as marinated â€Å"jerk† meats. Manioc, sweet potatoes and yams are served as a side dish or deep fried. There is heavy reliance on fish, including conch and shellfish. B. Identify the Caribbean country or island: 1. Sofrito – Cuba and Puerto Rico 2. Picadillo – Cuba 3. Jerk Foods – Jamaica 4. Sancocho – Dominican Republic 5. Moros y Cristianos – Cuba 6. Habichuelas con Dulce – Dominican Republic.

College Enrollment Essay Example for Free

College Enrollment Essay Income inequality has been increasing for the past 20 years. A substantial part of the increase in income differences can be explained by changes in the return to education. In dollar terms, 1973 college graduates earned 45 percent more than high school graduates; by 1994 they earned 65 percent more, based on real average hourly wages for college and high school graduates (Baumol and Blinder, 1997). The increasing income disparities between groups of differing educational attainment raises concern that access to postsecondary education (PSE) may not be as widespread as desired. President Clinton urged for the goal of universal college access in his 1997 State of the Union address, â€Å"We must make the thirteenth and fourteenth years of education—at least two years of college—just as universal in America by the 21st century as a high school education is today, and we must open the doors of college to all Americans. † Using data from the National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS) and the National Postsecondary Student Aid Study (NPSAS), this study examines access to postsecondary education by individuals in different income and test score groups. While many studies have found a statistically significant effect of income on college enrollment,1 less attention has been paid to the effect of family income after controlling for student achievement. This study specifically addresses this issue. We also explore differences in the decision of whether or not to attend PSE or in the type of PSE attended. We are interested in whether students are substituting less expensive alternatives (such as public or 2-year institutions) for high cost institutions, or whether they are not attending PSE at all. However, we do not examine selectivity of institutions attended. Another goal of this study is to determine which factors, including high school experiences, are especially important in determining college enrollment patterns. Hossler and Maple (1993) find that information on individual background factors allows them to predict, with a high degree of accuracy, which ninth-graders will go to college. The emphasis in our study is on how 1 See, for example, Leslie and Brinkman (1987), Savoca (1990), Schwartz (1986), and Mortenson and Wu (1990). SECTION I. INTRODUCTION 1 MATHTECH, INC. early indicators, such as expectations and course-taking behavior in the eighth grade, are related to college attendance six years later. 2 Last, we explore whether financial aid availability is a critical factor in determining PSE attendance. The combined effects of shifting federal support from grants to loans, and college tuition increasing at a rate faster than inflation are expected to have a large impact on enrollment patterns for low income youth. This report examines knowledge of and attitudes toward financial aid, and the relationship between such factors and PSE attendance. We also examine the effect of financial aid receipt on PSE attendance. In summary, the main research questions addressed in this report are: 1. 2. 3. 4. What percentage of students attend PSE, and what types of PSE do they attend? How are income and test score related to who goes to college? What factors, including high school experiences, are especially important in determining college enrollment patterns? Is financial aid availability a critical factor for determining PSE attendance? The rest of the report proceeds as follows. Section II describes the literature on individual and institutional factors that affect PSE attendance. Section III provides an overview of the data used in this report. It describes the NELS data, the NPSAS data, samples and weights used in the study, and correction of standard errors for sampling techniques. Section IV examines who goes to college. The section highlights the main answers to the first two research questions posed above, in a univariate or multivariate framework. Section V examines factors related to PSE attendance. Section VI explores the importance of financial aid, including knowledge of financial aid, financial aid applications, and the relationship between being offered financial aid and PSE attendance. Last, we include a bibliography of cited references. The executive summary (at the beginning of the report) highlights our findings and provides policy implications. An NCES study, not yet released, has focused on the â€Å"pipeline to higher education† using the NELS data (NCES, 1997). SECTION I. INTRODUCTION 2 2 MATHTECH, INC. One subset of analysis for this study is the group of low income, high test score students. Low income, high test score students may have the potential to benefit greatly from PSE attendance and, therefore, we want to identify factors or constraints, particularly financial ones, that might limit the students’ educational opportunities beyond high school. SECTION I. INTRODUCTION 3 MATHTECH, INC. II. LITERATURE REVIEW Much of the research on college enrollment patterns is founded upon the â€Å"human capital† model Gary Becker advanced. According to this theory, one decides to enroll in college as an investment in future earning power. Individuals calculate the value of attending college by comparing costs (direct and indirect) with expected income gains, and they make the decision that will maximize their utility over the long term. To understand enrollment behavior according to this model, it is necessary to look at such factors as tuition levels, student financial aid, average wages for high school graduates, and the difference in lifetime earnings between high school and college graduates. Economists and others agree, however, that non-monetary factors also play a major part in the college enrollment decision. Sociologists’ models of status attainment have suggested a number of background variables that join with economic factors to influence college plans. These include both personal traits (e. g. , academic ability) and interpersonal factors, such as the level of encouragement a student receives from parents and teachers. Hossler and Maple (1993) suggest that individual decisions on enrollment can be broken down into three stages: predisposition, search, and choice. According to their research, students who will ultimately attend college can be differentiated from those who will not as early as the ninth grade. Within the econometric and sociological models outlined above, the factors affecting enrollment in college can be divided into two general types: those specific to individual students, such as academic achievement and parental education levels, and those specific to educational or vocational alternatives, such as college tuition, financial aid, and unemployment levels. Students’ enrollment decisions can be viewed as jointly determined by their individual characteristics and the institutional or societal conditions that prevail. We first review individual traits that affect college enrollment, and then institutional determinants. SECTION II. LITERATURE REVIEW 4 MATHTECH, INC. A. INDIVIDUAL FACTORS THAT AFFECT COLLEGE ENROLLMENT Several studies have used data from the National Longitudinal Study of the High School Class of 1972 (NLS72), the National Longitudinal Survey of Labor Market Experience, Youth Cohort (NLSY), and the High School and Beyond Survey (HSB) to examine the factors affecting college enrollments. Manski and Wise (1983), Rouse (1994), and a number of others have used the variables included in these data sets to estimate multinomial logit models of enrollment decisions. Among the researchers, there seems to be considerable agreement regarding the individual traits that help to determine enrollment. These traits are discussed below. Manski and Wise (1983) presented a key point, namely that the enrollment process begins with the student’s decision to apply to college. This is much more important than the decisions made by college admissions personnel, since most would-be college students are likely to be admitted to some postsecondary institution of average quality. Jackson (1988) reports that in 1972, more than 97 percent of college applicants were admitted to at least one of their top three choices. The factors of greatest interest, then, are those that cause the student to seek to enroll. Both Manski and Wise (1983) and Rouse (1994) find that individual traits such as achievement levels, high school class rank, and parental education levels are of primary importance in determining the likelihood of a student’s applying to college. They state that higher family income levels increase the probability of application as well, but to a lesser extent. Manski and Wise also cite a â€Å" ‘peer’ or high school quality effect,† such that the larger the share of a high school senior’s classmates who attend 4-year schools, the more likely he or she will be to do the same. A recent NCES report (1997) describes the relationship among six risk factors (such as changing schools two or more times) and PSE attendance rates. St. John and Noell (1989) and St. John (1990) draw similar conclusions from the NLS72 and HSB data sets. St. John and Noell state that certain â€Å"social background variables† appear to make college enrollment more likely. These include higher test scores, higher grades, higher SECTION II. LITERATURE REVIEW 5 MATHTECH, INC. maternal education levels,3 and family income, as cited by Manski and Wise and Rouse. Other key variables include participation in an academic track during high school and â€Å"high postsecondary aspirations,† as measured by students’ reporting of the highest level of schooling they expect to achieve. Hossler and Maple (1993) find that parental education levels have a stronger effect on enrollment plans than student ability or income level. Other background factors that researchers have found to be significant include the level of parental encouragement (Hossler, Braxton, and Coopersmith, 1989) and students’ own expectations about the college decision (Borus and Carpenter, 1984). Jackson (1988) concludes that test scores, grades, taking part in a college preparatory program, and attending a school with many college-going peers are the student attributes most important for college enrollment. Kohn, Manski, and Mundel (1976) report that parents’ education level has a positive effect on a student’s likelihood of enrollment, but state that this effect decreases as family income rises. A number of researchers have examined the effects of family income levels on college enrollment. Manski (1992:16) concludes that there are â€Å"persistent patterns of stratification of college enrollments by income. † Both Manski (1992) and Kane (1995) present census data for multi-year periods that show, for ascending income levels, a steadily increasing percentage of 18to 19-year-old dependent family members enrolled in college. Using the same data source, Clotfelter (1991) and Mortenson and Wu (1990) cite positive income effects for the 18- to 24year-old group as well. Hauser (1993) finds large family income effects on college enrollment for White and Hispanic families, but he finds no such effects for Black families. 3 St. John and Noell do not include paternal education levels as a variable in their study. Manski and Wise and Rouse consider maternal and paternal education levels as separate variables, but present their conclusions in terms of parental education levels as a whole. Most of the studies reviewed here do not distinguish between mother’s and father’s education levels. One exception is the study by Kohn, Manski and Mundel (1976). This study estimates a model using subsamples of the SCOPE survey from two different states. While one group shows that the father’s education level has a greater effect on the likelihood of college attendance than does the mother’s, the other group shows the mother’s education level as having a greater effect. SECTION II. LITERATURE REVIEW 6 MATHTECH, INC. B. INSTITUTIONAL FACTORS THAT AFFECT COLLEGE ENROLLMENT. In addition to the factors that operate at an individual level, researchers have found a variety of institutional factors, or factors pertaining to educational and vocational alternatives, that affect college enrollment levels. Manski and Wise (1983) include among these factors tuition level, â€Å"quality of school† (as measured by the average combined SAT score of incoming freshmen), and the availability of government and institutional financial aid. Rouse (1994) examines the factor of proximity by estimating changes in enrollments that would result from decreasing the average  distance to the nearest 2-year college. She also considers the effects of tuition levels and financial aid availability, as well unemployment rates, which serve as a measure of competing opportunities available to high school seniors. Tuition levels are another institutional factor with a significant effect on college enrollment. Leslie and Brinkman (1987) review 25 studies on this subject, and find a general consensus that a $100 increase in tuition nationwide, in 1982–1983 academic year dollars, would result in a 6 percent decline in the college participation rate for the 18- to 24-year-old group. Savoca (1990) makes the point that high tuition levels may lessen postsecondary enrollments in the aggregate by discouraging some students from ever applying to college. The effects of tuition levels are moderated in many cases by the effects of financial aid. McPherson and Schapiro (1991) state that the variable of interest should be net cost, or tuition less financial aid. At the initial stages of the enrollment decision, however, students often lack information on their eligibility for financial aid and the amount of aid they would be likely to receive. Researchers have differing views regarding the effects of financial aid on enrollment at different types of institutions. Reyes (1994) finds that increases in financial aid positively affect both 2-year and 4-year college enrollment rates, based on information from the NLSY and HSB. Manski and Wise (1983), using the NLS72, conclude that financial aid affects students’ decisions to attend 2-year institutions, as opposed to not going to college at all. However, this study finds that enrollments at 4-year schools have little sensitivity to the availability of financial aid. Manski and Wise do not consider the effect of financial aid on the student’s choice between a 2-year and a 4-year institution. SECTION II. LITERATURE REVIEW 7 MATHTECH, INC. Other researchers have compared the effects of decreasing tuition with the effects of increasing financial aid. Manski and Wise (1983) find that for those attending 2-year schools, an additional dollar of financial aid would be worth more than a one dollar reduction in tuition. St. John (1990:172) also finds that â€Å"college applicants [are] more responsive to changes in student aid than to changes in tuition,† except for those in the upper income group. Kane (1995), however, argues that while financial aid increases may be more equitable because they are means tested, they are not as effective as decreases in tuition. This is a consequence of the complexity of the financial aid application process and the unwillingness of low income families to borrow to finance a college education. When studying the effect of tuition and financial aid on PSE enrollment, the group to be especially concerned about is low income students. Leslie and Brinkman (1987) and Savoca (1990) find that tuition levels affect enrollment decisions for low income students much more than for middle and upper income groups. By the same token, the availability of financial aid is a much more crucial factor for those at lower income levels. Orfield (1992) notes that the maximum Pell grant is less than one-fifth of the tuition at an elite university. Such a gap between aid and costs, he contends, may steer many low income students toward lower cost schools. Hearn’s 1991 study supports this hypothesis. He finds that when academic ability, achievement, and other factors are controlled for, lower income students are especially likely to choose institutions of lower selectivity. Schwartz (1985) finds that low income students are affected differently by publicly provided financial aid and aid supplied by institutions. He states that public grants tend to promote greater equity among income groups in college enrollment. Private grants, however, are often awarded on the basis of academic ability, and they tend to favor students who could afford to go to college without them. Clotfelter (1991) expresses the same concern about the effects of institutional aid. Manski and Wise (1983) note that even public aid is not always awarded where the need is greatest. They state that in 1979, 59 percent of Basic Educational Opportunity Grants were awarded to students who would probably have gone to college in the absence of such aid. Table 1 summarizes the data sources used in the studies mentioned here. SECTION II. LITERATURE REVIEW 8 MATHTECH, INC. Table 1 MAIN DATA SOURCES FOR WORKS CITED IN LITERATURE REVIEW STUDY Borus, Michael E.and Carpenter, Susan A. , â€Å"Factors Associated with College Attendance of High-School Seniors† (1984) Clotfelter, Charles T. , â€Å"Demand for Undergraduate Education† (1991) Hauser, Robert M. , â€Å"Trends in College Entry among Whites, Blacks, and Hispanics† (1993) Hearn, James C. , â€Å"Academic and Nonacademic Influences on the College Destinations of 1980 High School Graduates† (1991) Hossler, Don, Braxton, John and Coopersmith, Georgia, â€Å"Understanding College Choice† (1989). Hossler, Don and Maple, Sue, â€Å"Being Undecided about Postsecondary Education† (1993) Jackson, Gregory A., â€Å"Did College Choice Change during the Seventies? † (1988) Kane, Thomas, â€Å"Rising Public College Tuition and College Entry: How Well Do Public Subsidies Promote Access to College? † (1995) Kohn, Meir G. , Manski, Charles F. , and Mundel, David S. , â€Å"An Empirical Investigation of Factors which Influence College-going Behavior† (1976) Leslie, Larry L. , and Brinkman, Paul T. , â€Å"Student Price Response in Higher Education† (1987) Manski, Charles F. , and Wise, David A. , College Choice in America (1983) Manski, Charles F. , â€Å"Income and Higher Education† (1992) McPherson, Michael S., and Schapiro, Morton Owen, â€Å"Does Student Aid Affect College Enrollment? New Evidence on a Persistent Controversy† (1991) Mortenson, Thomas G. , and Wu, Zhijun, â€Å"High School Graduation and College Participation of Young Adults by Family Income Backgrounds 1970 to 1989† (1990) National Center for Education Statistics. â€Å"Confronting the Odds: Students At Risk and the Pipeline to Higher Education† (1997). MAIN DATA SOURCES 1979 and 1980 National Longitudinal Surveys of Labor Market Experience, Youth Cohort (NLSY) Review of studies done by others, with data from Current Population Survey (CPS) and High. School and Beyond (HSB) CPS HSB, Higher Education Research Institute (HERI) data Review of studies done by others Cluster sample of 5,000 Indiana ninth graders National Longitudinal Study of the High School Class of 1972 (NLS72), HSB NLSY, HSB, CPS School to College: Opportunities for Postsecondary Education (SCOPE) Survey Meta-analysis of studies done by others NLS72 NLS72, HSB, CPS Cooperative Institutional Research Program (CIRP) data, CPS HSB, Current Population Report, CPS NELS SECTION II. LITERATURE REVIEW. 9 MATHTECH, INC. STUDY Orfield, Gary, â€Å"Money, Equity, and College Access† (1992) Reyes, Suzanne, â€Å"The College Enrollment Decision: The Role of the Guaranteed Student Loan† (1994) Rouse, Cecilia Elena, â€Å"What to Do after High School: The Two-Year versus Four-Year College Enrollment Decision† (1994) St. John, Edward P. , and Noell, Jay, â€Å"The Effects of Student Financial Aid on Access to Higher Education: An Analysis of Progress with Special Consideration of Minority Enrollment† (1989) St. John, Edward P., â€Å"Price Response in Enrollment Decisions: An Analysis of the High School and Beyond Sophomore Cohort† (1990) Savoca, Elizabeth, â€Å"Another Look at the Demand for Higher Education: Measuring the Price Sensitivity of the Decision to Apply to College† (1990) Schwartz, J. Brad, â€Å"Student Financial Aid and the College Enrollment Decision: The Effects of Public and Private Grants and Interest Subsidies† (1985) Schwartz, J. Brad, â€Å"Wealth Neutrality in Higher Education: The Effects of Student Grants† (1986) MAIN DATA SOURCES Review of history of federal student financial aid programs NLSY, HSB NLSY, HSB, CPS. NLS72, HSB HSB NLS72 HSB, CPS HSB, CPS SECTION II. LITERATURE REVIEW 10 MATHTECH, INC. III. DATA A. NELS DATA While a number of studies have used data from the National Longitudinal Survey, Youth Cohort (NLSY), the National Longitudinal Study of the High School Class of 1972 (NLS72), and the High School and Beyond Survey (HSB) to examine the factors affecting college enrollments, this work effort is among the first to use NELS to analyze these types of issues. In 1988, NELS initially surveyed over 24,000 public and private school eighth graders throughout the United States. The nationally representative eighth grade cohort was tested in four subjects (mathematics, reading, science, and social studies). Two teachers of each student (representing two of the four subjects) were also surveyed, as was an administrator from each school. On average, each of the 1,052 participating schools was represented by 24 students and five teachers. Parents were also surveyed, providing researchers with detailed information on family background variables. Since 1988, the initial eighth grade cohort has been re-surveyed three times (and has been â€Å"freshened† with new sample members). The first follow-up of NELS (spring, 1990), included the same components as the base year study, with the exception of the parent survey, which was not implemented in the 1990 round. It also included a component on early dropouts (those who left school between the end of eighth grade and the end of 10th grade). The second follow-up (spring, 1992), repeated all components of the first follow-up study and also included a parent questionnaire. However, this time only one teacher of each student (either a mathematics or a science teacher) was asked to complete a teacher questionnaire. High school transcript data were also collected for these students. A subsample of the NELS:88 second follow-up sample was again followed-up in the spring of 1994, when most sample members had been out of high school for 2 years. In all, 14,915 students were surveyed, most through computer-assisted telephone interviewing. Major content areas for the third follow-up questionnaire were: education histories; work experience histories; work-related training; family formation; opinions and other experiences; occurrence or SECTION III. DATA 11 MATHTECH, INC. non-occurrence of significant life events; and income. Data collection for this wave began on February 4, and ended on August 13, 1994. At the time the data were collected, most of the respondents were 2 years out of high school. Table 2 summarizes the components of the different waves of the surveys. Table 2 OVERVIEW OF NELS NELS Components Grades included Cohort Base Year Spring term 1988 grade 8 students: questionnaire, tests questionnaire questionnaire two teachers per student (taken from reading, mathematics, science, or social studies) First Follow-up Spring term 1990 modal grade = sophomore students, dropouts: questionnaire, tests none questionnaire two teachers per student (taken from reading, mathematics, science, or social studies) Second Follow-up Spring term 1992 modal grade = senior students, dropouts: questionnaire, tests, H. S.  transcripts questionnaire questionnaire one teacher per student (taken from mathematics or science). Third Follow-up Spring 1994 H. S. + 2 years all individuals: questionnaire none none none Parents Principals Teachers B. NPSAS DATA Because the NELS database does not contain detailed information on financial aid, the National Postsecondary Student Aid Study (NPSAS) database is used to supplement our study with additional financial aid information. This database is used to predict financial aid for the respondents in NELS based on demographic and other characteristics that are available in both databases. NPSAS is constructed specifically to provide information on financing of postsecondary education, so it is a good candidate for this use. This database surveys a nationally representative sample of undergraduate, graduate, and first-professional students attending less than 2-year, 2-year, 4-year, and doctoral granting institutions. Both students who receive and those who do not receive financial aid are surveyed. SECTION III. DATA 12 MATHTECH, INC. The 1993 NPSAS study collected information on more than 78,000 undergraduate and graduate students at about 1,100 institutions. To be eligible, students must have been enrolled between May 1, 1992 and April 30, 1993 at a postsecondary institution in the United States or Puerto Rico. The students had to be enrolled in courses for credit, and in a program of 3 months or longer. Also eligible for inclusion were students who received a bachelor’s degree between July 1, 1992 and June 30, 1993. Students who were enrolled in a GED program or who were also enrolled in high school were not included. C. SAMPLE AND WEIGHTS Of the 14,915 respondents in the third NELS follow-up, 13,120 are represented in all four waves of the NELS data. The remaining 1,795 respondents are either first follow-up â€Å"freshened† students,4 second follow-up freshened students,5 base-year ineligibles,6 or base-year eligible students who declined to participate in one or more of the survey waves, but who did participate in the third survey wave. The breakdown of these 1,795 respondents is as follows: 501 first follow-up freshened students, 102 second follow-up freshened students, 271 base-year ineligibles, and 921 base-year eligibles with missing survey waves. To take advantage of the longitudinal nature of the NELS data and to be consistent across models and issues in the report, we focus our work on the sample of 13,120 respondents represented in all four waves of the NELS data. Consequently, the weight used in our analyses, (â€Å"F3PNLWT†) applies to sample members who completed questionnaires in all four rounds of NELS:88. As a result, the longitudinal analyses that we conduct, and the estimates that are produced in this study can only be used to make projections to the population of spring 1988 eighth graders. In the descriptive tables, all percentages are weighted using F3PNLWT, including the analyses with the high school transcript data. Those who were tenth graders in 1990 but were not in the base-year sampling frame, either because they were not in the country or because they were not in the eighth grade in the spring term of 1988. Those who were 12th graders in 1992 but were not in either the base year or first follow-up sampling frames, either because they were not in the country or because they were not in the eighth (10th) grade in the spring term of 1988 (1990). 6 5 4 Students excluded in 1988 due to linguistic, mental, or physical obstacles to participation. 13 SECTION III. DATA MATHTECH, INC. This sample includes dropouts, since the purpose of this study is to examine the overall question of what characteristics of eighth graders in 1988 are related to PSE attendance. We focus on early indicators, such as educational expectations and course-taking behavior in the eighth grade, and not on the â€Å"pipeline† of high school experiences that a dropout would lack access to. However, the dropouts were not asked the same set of survey questions as the other respondents, and, therefore, some of the analysis does not include dropouts. For each of our tables or figures, we note whether or not the dropouts are included in the analysis. D. CORRECTED STANDARD ERRORS Because NELS data are collected through a multi-stage sampling scheme, calculation of standard errors through standard methods can understate these errors. The sampling technique used in NELS is a selection of schools, and then within schools, a selection of students. With this sampling method, the observations of different students may not be independent from one another. Stataâ„ ¢, the statistical software used for analysis in this report, corrects the standard errors for these sampling techniques. Except for multinomial logit models, for which this correction is not available, survey correction techniques are used, and we note whenever the corrections are not used. However, we have found that such corrections do not have a large effect on our results, and therefore, we present all results with confidence. E. VARIABLE DEFINITIONS. The appendix to this study contains definitions of the key variables used in our analysis. For each key variable, we describe how we constructed the variable and we list the names of the NELS variables used in the construction. SECTION III. DATA 14 MATHTECH, INC. IV. WHO GOES TO COLLEGE? A. WHAT PROPORTION OF STUDENTS ATTEND COLLEGE, AND WHAT TYPE OF COLLEGE DID THEY ATTEND? We begin our analysis by examining the demographics of postsecondary school choice and discussing our main findings regarding college attendance rates and types of postsecondary education (PSE) attended. As shown in Table 3, a majority of 1988 eighth graders attend some type of PSE by 1994. Overall, 62. 7 percent of the respondents attend PSE. (Note that in all of the tables in this report, all percentages are weighted. ) Students are most likely to attend a 4-year public or a less than 4-year public school. Approximately 24 percent of the students attend each of these types of schools. Next most common are 4-year private schools. Just over 11 percent of the respondents attend 4-year private schools. Only 4 percent of the respondents attend less than 4-year private schools. Thirty-seven percent of the respondents do not attend any type of PSE. Women are slightly more likely than men to attend PSE. While 60 percent of men attend PSE, 65 percent of women attend. Women are more likely than men to attend 4-year private schools and less than 4-year private schools. Native Americans, Blacks, and Hispanics are least likely to attend PSE and Asians and Pacific Islanders are most likely to attend PSE. Hispanics are most likely to attend less than 4year private schools. Students whose parents have higher education levels are much more likely to attend PSE. While only 33 percent of students whose parents have less than a high school education attend PSE, 90 percent of students whose parents have an advanced degree attend PSE. SECTION IV. WHO GOES TO COLLEGE? 15 MATHTECH, INC. Table 3 DEMOGRAPHICS OF POSTSECONDARY SCHOOL CHOICE1 No PSE 4-Year Public 4-Year Private.

The History Of The Meaning Of Stress Philosophy Essay

The History Of The Meaning Of Stress Philosophy Essay In  psychological terms,  stress  is a feeling of pressure, strain, anxiety, being overwhelmed. It is characterized by overall irritability, feeling of insecurity, nervousness, withdrawal from social activities, loss of appetite, depression, frequent panic attacks, exhaustion, low / high blood pressure, skin problems, inability to sleep, migraine, gastrointestinal problems (constipation or diarrhea) and menstrual problems in case of women. It can lead to more serious problems e.g. heart problems, etc. Stress in small amounts may be desirable, beneficial and even healthy for us in some cases.. Positive stress helps improve our performance and keeps us focused on our targets and also on out toes. It also plays a major role in motivating us, helping us in adapting to the environment and any changes therein and also manages our reaction to the environment. However, excess of anything is bad. This is true in case of stress also. Large amounts of stress can cause many problems in the body that will be harmful to us. Stress could be something external, that is, related to the environment  or it could be something internal, that is, affected by the internal perceptions of an individual that cause him to experience feelings of anxiety / negative emotions in relation to a given situation. Examples of negative emotions are pressure, discomfort, etc., which in excess prove to be harmful for us. For individuals experiencing Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), external factors that are not considered to be stressful or threatening to the individual are deemed as such. Examples of some such triggers are Reporting stress on hearing a particular song or a particular tune, seeing something that may remind the individual of prior events that he found threatening to himself. People experience feelings of stress, or perceive things to be threatening to themselves, when they believe that the resources that they have are insufficient for coping with difficulties. It can also be said that people think they do not have the resources that the circumstances demand them to possess. These difficulties may be some stimuli, situations or people. When people believe that the demands being placed upon them are beyond their coping ability, they perceive stress (negative). CAUSES OF STRESS Any stimulus that is perceived to be a threat, may it be a particular situation, circumstance, etc. is called a stressor if it promotes or causes an individual to experience stress. Some of the most common stressors in an individuals life are Personal Circumstances The personal circumstances of the individual are perhaps the most important stressor in an individuals life. These include any financial difficulties ha may be experiencing, any conflicts he may have with his family or friends, etc. These give a lot of stress to the individual. Health Status An individuals health status is also a cause of stress to him. If the individual is going through some health problems e.g. he has a disease like malaria, he will experience a lot of tension. In case the individual is poor, he will worry about the cost of treatment, hospital bills, etc. In case of a student, he will worry about the amount of studies that he will miss, the homework, assignments, etc that he will have to submit when he gets better, etc. In case of an employee, he will worry about the backlog of his work, whether his job in the organization is safe or he will be replaced, etc. Thus, health status is also a major stressor in the individuals life. Ethnicity, Gender, Age or Disability Ethnicity refers to a person belonging to a particular place, culture, etc. Sometimes the individual is subjected to bias on the basis of non ethnicity (in case of Indians working in Norway, the natives of Norway getting preference over Indians even though they may not be as competitive as the Indians), gender (not accepting individual for a particular post in the organization because of gender; this is usually found in the cases of women). Such bias also lead to a lot of frustration arising within the individual and giving him stress. Also, age of the individual is also a stressor for him. When he grows old, he starts worrying about his retirement, whether the company will firm him because of his inability to work productively any longer, how he will support himself, etc. This gives him a lot of stress. Similarly, disability is also a cause of stress for the individual. Personality The personality of the individual also affects the amount of stress that he takes, how much he is affected by the different stressors, etc. e.g. Someone, who has an easygoing, happy go lucky nature will not take a lot of stress or not take any undue stress. On the other hand, a pessimistic person will always be under a lot of stress as he will always think the worst in every situation and take a lot of stress from the same. Thus, personality of the individual can also be said to be one of the factors of stress. Background and Culture The background and culture of a person are a factor in shaping the personality of a person. Thus, background and culture can also be a factor of stress for the individual. Other than the above factors, there are various demands in and outside work which also contribute to giving stress to the individual. WORK RELATED STRESS Work related stress is the tension or stress that an individual experiences when he feels or he actually does not have adequate resources to cope with the various types and combinations of demands of his work. Work related stress usually arises due to lack of planning. In the absence of an organized and well designed plan to accomplish a goal, the individual feels stress while working towards accomplishment of the goal. However, planning or rather lack of it, alone, is not responsible for work related stress. There are various other factors which can be responsible for this stress. Some of them are given below :- Management Standards Management standards give definition to the culture and characteristics of the organization. They lay out the benchmarks for performance of the employees. The employee feels stress from the tension of not being able to achieve the target or not being up to the standard in the organization. He fears this will lead to him losing his job and thus, takes tension. Thus, management standards also cause stress to the organization. However, if this stress is taken positively, it can lead to great personal growth of the employee by serving as a motivator for the employee to perform better. Overworked Underling This scenario usually arises when there is a high demand for the services of the individual but he has very little or no control over how his services are volunteered or used in the organization. This tends to cause a great deal of psychological strain on the individual. The employee is usually overworked, is busy from the time he comes to work to the time he goes home, mostly comes early to work and goes home late. The employee does not get a say in the projects that he will be doing and often finds himself doing someone elses work also in addition to his own. Frustrated Go Getter Every employee, whether he is a hard worker or a smart worker, works with some specific objective in mind. This objective can be a raise in salary, appreciation for a job well done, promotion, etc. However, when this objective is not satisfied, even though the employee has worked fruitfully for the achievement of the same, the employee becomes frustrated. In this, someone else (e.g. the bosses) may take credit for employees work instead of giving him what is due to him. Whatever the reason may be, as the employee does not get any fruit for his efforts, he gets more and more frustrated. As his frustration increases, so does his stress and anxiety level. Thus, employee takes a lot of stress as a frustrated go getter. Castaway In this situation the employee feels like its just him against the world. He feels totally alone and feels that he cannot trust or rely on anyone except himself. His boss does not give him any guidance or help when he faces a problem. He feels that he does not have any friends who he can trust at the workplace. He becomes cynical and cannot find a way to channel all his negative feelings / emotions (frustration at the boss, fear of losing his job, etc.) There is no outlet for all these emotions. He is at a loss of who to turn to and feels totally alienated by everyone else at the workplace. This also gives the employee a lot of stress. Doormat This happens a lot in jobs where the employee has to deal directly with the customer. He is expected to talk politely to the customer irrespective of what or how the customer is talking to him. The same is true for the employees relationship with his seniors / manager(s). The manager may not treat employee with any respect but the employee must always treat the manager respectfully. He is always expected to maintain a faà §ade of professionalism and courtesy. Thus employee feels like he is being treated like a doormat on which anyone and everyone can step without there being any consequence of the same. He feels that he is being taken for granted and no importance is being given to his self respect. This also leads to bottling up of emotions on the employees part, thus giving rise to tension and stress. Tech Prisoner This is one of the adverse effects that technology has one our life. What with laptops, mobiles, Blackberry, etc. the boss can be in touch with the employee 24 X 7 X 365 i.e. all the time. Even at Sunday, which is an off day, the employee is usually working, albeit from home. In case he is sick, the boss tells him he need not come to officeà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦..he can work from home instead. Our home, instead of being a sanctuary to return to from work, has now become more like a 2nd workplace. The employee is imprisoned by the very technology that makes his work easier. Thus, the employee does not have any place or time to unwind or relax. He is always working. This gives rise to frustration on the employees part. This frustration, in turn, leads to stress. Bully Target In organizations, the boss is usually the ultimate bully. He holds the power to fire the employee, deduct his salary, etc. The boss knows this. The employee is usually the bully target for the boss. The boss can take out all his anger or frustration on the employee, give him enormous amounts of work to be finished within a very short period, insult the employee or dress him down in front of others as a show of power over the employee, etc. The employee, being under the bosss thumb cannot do anything but go on working and hope to please the boss. Even if this happens to others and not the employee himself, he is always afraid that it will be his turn next. Thus, these feelings of fear, anxiety, etc. give stress to the employee. Burnout Burnout begins with prolonged and excessive levels of job stress. Strain is produced as a result of this stress. The process is completed when employee copes with the job in a defensive manner and becomes cynical or rigid. It usually happens when an employee has been working his tail off continuously for a long period of time. As the term suggests, burnout refers to a state of total exhaustion, both physical and emotional, when the employee feels that he is just about to break down or collapse from overwork. It is usually characterized by a dramatic decrease in the employees productivity and a diminishing of interest on the part of the employee in the work that he has to do. It is caused by working for long hours, taking very little time to relax and a continuous competition with peers, the need to prove oneself to the superiors, etc. All this builds pressure on the employee and causes a lot of stress to him. Wronged Victim The employee feels that he is being wronged at the workplace. He may feel that the boss is playing favorites and being partial towards some employees e.g. the employee may be overburdened with work, while some other team members might have no work at all and may be relaxing. Even at the employees behest, the manager refuses to distribute his work among them. Thus, employee may feel the manager is being partial towards the other employees. Also, if the manager takes credit for work done by employee, he may feel wronged. This leads to employee feeling very frustrated with the manager as well as the organization and thus, feeling very stressed. The main work related stressor is burnout. CAUSES OF BURNOUT Long hours When an employee keeps working long hours continuously for a long period of time, he starts feeling exhausted, both mentally and physically. This also leads to him not being able to concentrate on his work, losing his interest in the same and feeling large amounts of stress. This leads to the employee experiencing burnout. Lack of down time As the saying goes, All work and no play made Jack a dull boy. Similarly, if an employee continues to work for long hours continuously for a long period of time without taking any time to relax or unwind, the exhaustion of the employee becomes two fold. Instead of helping him do the work faster by devoting more time to it (as he believes), the employee is actually slowing himself down by not resting at all. Once he rests, the productivity of employee can once again become high. On the other hand, when an employee keeps working without resting his productivity keeps getting lower until it is nil. This is when the employee is likely to experience a complete physical and mental breakdown. Continuous competition Competition, as long it is taken positively, is good for the employee. It helps in improving performance of the individual and also helps in his personal growth. However, Excess of anything is bad. This holds true in case of competition also. If an employee is always worrying about competition, it is liable to build pressure on him. This pressure, combined with all other pressures, can speed up the process of burnout of the employee. Thus, we can see that everything, may it be competitiveness, work or rest works positively for the employee only when done in moderation. Excess can lead to burnout which only adds to the employees problems rather than reducing them. SYMPTOMS OF BURNOUT Low Job Performance The employees productivity falls and his level of performance decreases. Also, his job satisfaction also goes down. Employee is not happy doing his job and does not give the required level of productivity. Physical exhaustion / Fatigue Due to working for long hours for a prolonged duration, employee feels tired out and in great need of relaxation. He is unable to concentrate and focus on his job, bringing down his performance. He feels totally exhausted physically. Rigidity Employee becomes rigid i.e. inflexible towards change of any kind. Instead of being active and trying to adapt himself to any new changes in the job environment, the employee adopts a rigid attitude and does not want change of any kind. Apathy The employee becomes indifferent towards the activities of the organization. He loses his sense of purpose and becomes listless. Also, the employee does not work towards fulfillment of his objectives and does not really care about their fulfillment. Cynicism -The employee becomes cynical and shows distrust towards everyone. He feels that no one can be trusted and that everyone is motivated by their own selfish reasons only. Emotional exhaustion The employee is so drained that he acts like a zombie with no sense of what is going on or what is happening. He is totally exhausted emotionally as well as physically. He has no energy and is in dire need of relaxation to get back some energy. COPING WITH STRESS Individuals may perceive various threats to themselves. These perceived threats may prove to be stressful to them in various ways. Individuals have different coping mechanisms or defense mechanisms for handling this stress. However, all their variations are based on the same general idea: There are productive / positive and counter productive / negative ways of handling stress. As stress is perceived, the mechanisms given below may not necessarily deal with the actual situation that causes stress to an individual. However, they may be considered coping mechanisms if they give the individual a way to handle the stress in a better way such that the negative feelings / feelings of anxiety that the individual is experiencing due to the perceived threat may be reduced substantially, rather than actually fixing the concrete obstacle causing the stress. This actual fixing is not possible in real life. Given below are some widely accepted mechanisms for coping with stress 1) Highly Active / Problem-Focused / Adaptive Mechanisms These skills are used when the individual wants to face the problem head on, or at the very least, deal with the negative emotions experienced by him due to stress in a positive / constructive manner. This style is generally known as being adaptive in nature. a)  Affiliation   This method involves dealing with stress by involving oneself in social activities, turning to a social network for support, etc. However, the individual just uses these social interactions as a way to unwind or get away from his problems for some time. He does not share his problems with others in order to decrease the burden on himself or transfer the responsibility to someone else. b) Humor As it is said, Laughter is the best medicine. An individual often tries to get some relief in a stressful situation by injecting some humor or comic relief into the same. Besides decreasing the stress on the individual, this method also allows him to step away from the situation. This gives him another way of looking at the problem which can help him in finding a solution to the same. c) Sublimation   This method allows the individual to find an indirect way of resolving the conflict such that there is neither any loss of pleasure on the part of the individual nor any adverse consequences. Most importantly, this mechanism is characterized by the fact that it gives the individual a socially acceptable outlet for channeling his troubling emotions and impulses. d) Positive Reappraisal This method involves redirection of the individuals thoughts or cognitive energy to good events that are either happening or have yet to occur. It leads to introspection or self reflection, personal growth of the individual and awareness of the benefits of ones efforts or of how much the individual can achieve through his efforts.. Other adaptive coping mechanisms include altruism, anticipation and self observation. 2) Disavowal Mechanisms These mechanisms are used by the individual because they give him a diminished or even non existent (in some cases) awareness of his fears, perceived threats, feelings of anxiety, etc. This is because this mechanism causes the individual to become impervious to any perceived threats. Displacement   This is the technique of directing ones attention away from a threatening situation, event, etc. to a somewhat less threatening one. Repression   In this method, the individual tries to totally disconnect himself from the threatening situation by removing all feelings, thoughts, etc. related to the perceived threat from his awareness. This method is usually not advisable because when followed long enough, it is little more than denial of the threats that he faces. He is running away from the threats or hiding from them instead of facing or resolving them. Reaction Formation   This is similar to repression. The only difference is that in this method, in addition to removing all threatening thoughts, feelings, etc. from ones consciousness, the individual substitutes or replaces them with the exact opposite feelings, thoughts, etc. e.g. in case of threatening thoughts, individual will substitute pleasant ones. Other disavowal mechanisms include rationalization, undoing, dissociation, etc. Active Mechanisms In these methods, an individual deals with stress either by withdrawing from the threatening situation or by taking action against the same. Acting Out In this method, the individual, instead of reflecting on the problem and trying to find a way to solve it, starts taking maladaptive action i.e. instead of trying to adapt to the situation, the individual starts fighting against it. Such behavior is counter productive for the individual and is usually characterized as problematic or counter normative behavior. Passive Aggression   In this method, the individual deals with negative thoughts or feelings arising from the stress (anxiety, fear, etc.) by behaving in a resentful or hostile manner towards others. He rejects help from others and also complains about the circumstances and / or the present state of affairs. Depending on the situation, all the coping mechanisms given above may be characterized as being adaptive or counter normative. TO RELIEVE STRESS AMONG EMPLOYEES, A MANAGER CAN Include Employees In Decision Making This gives the employees a feeling of control over the work that they do. It helps in reducing the frustration that they experience with the managers and the organization at the amount of work they have to do. By making them a part of the decision making process, the manager is gaining their voluntary acceptance to do the work allotted to them. Increasing Transparency The manager can make the decision making process more transparent, explaining the reason for a specific decision. This does not mean that manager has to give an explanation to the employees for all his decisions but he may give reasons for those decisions which the employee perceives as having a negative effect on him. This will nip any notions of partiality by manager in the bud only and also make the employee feel more valued. Discuss Employees Problems The manager should have an open door policy and encourage employees to discuss their problems. This will help in clearing any misunderstandings or misconceptions that the employee may harbor and also assure the employee that he can come to the manager for help and guidance. This will reduce the stress on the employee. Giving Employees Time off This means literally giving the employee some time to relax. Just the fact that the employee is at home is not enough. If employee is working from home, he is still working only. Giving time off means not giving employee any work and just allowing him to unwind or relax himself. This will reduce the physical and emotional exhaustion of the employee and allow him to rejuvenate. Also, he will feel less like a tech prisoner. This will also reduce the stress on the employee. Periodic Performance Appraisal Managers should conduct periodic performance appraisals (weekly, monthly, etc.) of the employees so as to analyze their performance, check whether they are performing according to the set standards, find out the causes of deviation, if any exists. The manager can also instruct the employees on how to achieve their goals and where they are going wrong presently. This will reduce any feelings of frustration experienced by employees and also assure them that the manager wants to help them in achieving their goals. BENEFITS OF RELIEVING STRESS TO INDIVIDUALS Higher Job Satisfaction If the individual is not experiencing any stress or too much stress, he will be happy doing his job and thus, will have a high degree of job satisfaction. Easier To Achieve Goals If the individual is not experiencing an excess of stress and he has a high level of job satisfaction, he will also have higher productivity. With this higher productivity, individual will be able to achieve his goals in a shorter time. Harmony If individual does not experience too much stress and has high job satisfaction, he will automatically find a balance between his professional and personal life. Thus, he will find a harmony between both and be able to enjoy both to the fullest extent. Problem free The individual, in the absence of negative stress in his life, will be free of many of the problems relating to stress e.g. listlessness, emotional and physical exhaustion, etc. Thus, his life will be further enriched. TO TEAMS Harmony Between Team Members Due to lack of stress on individuals and reduced tension among the employees, there will be more harmony between the members of the team and team spirit will be significantly greater. Better Performance Due to greater harmony between the members of the team, the team members will perform better and be more productive. Subsequently, the team performance will also be much better. Achievement of Targets As the performance will be higher, the team will also be able to achieve all its targets in a timely manner. Higher Motivation Due to the combination of the above given factors (harmony between team members, better performance and achievement of targets), the team will have a high degree of motivation. TO ORGANIZATIONS Higher Productivity As the individuals will perform better and the teams performance will improve, the productivity of the organization will also increase. Lower Turnover Turnover here refers to the attrition rate or the rate at which employees leave the organization. If employees experience less or no stress, they will have job satisfaction and be happy doing their jobs. If they are happy working in the organization, they will not leave the organization. Thus, there will be lower turnover. Lower Absenteeism If the employees have a high degree of job satisfaction, they will not be absent frequently from the job and thus, there will be lower absenteeism in the organization. Better Reputation As the company will have a lower turnover, lower absenteeism and a higher productivity, its reputation in the market will improve greatly and the value of its goodwill will also increase, Thus, company will get more business and its income will increase.

Morality in Hawthornes The Scarlet Letter Essay -- Scarlet Letter ess

Morality in The Scarlet Letter      Ã‚   "...pain is in itself an evil; and indeed, without exception, the only evil; or else the words good and evil have no meaning." (Chase 127) In the novel The Scarlet Letter, Nathaniel Hawthorne presents a very clear view of his stand on morality, which he carefully cultivates through the course of the story. The moral, which is "Be true!" applies equally well to all of the characters in the novel. Though his view does seem to stand as true through the length of the story, it does not, unfortunately, transfer as smoothly to our lives today. In essence it is a hedonistic view to take, which requires a slight stretch as to his interpretation as to how evil, and important, an individual's pain is unto itself. By looking at each of the main characters in turn, it may be determined exactly what his view was on this subject, and how it may be applied to life in our society today.    Because his moral is more explicitly defined as "Be true! Be true! Be true! Show freely to the world, if not your worst, some trait by which your worst may be inferred!" Hester Prynne is a sound example, for she did exactly that. She could not, and did not, hide her sin, and as a result wore it clearly at all times on her breast, hiding nothing. While at first it may seem as though she was punished more than any other character, because she was so physically punished, Hawthorne makes it clear that she was the most satisfied character in the novel, eventually finding peace with herself because she had no pressing secrets to gnaw at her conscience. Physically, however, the Puritan imposition of punishment was harsh, and unyielding. It brought her below many of the men and women of the town, and had the psychologic... .... 47-49). San Diego: Greenhaven.    Canby, Henry S. (1996). "A Skeptic Incompatible with His Time and His Past." Readings on Nathaniel Hawthorne (pp. 55- 63). San Diego: Greenhaven.    Chase, Richard (1996). "The Ambiguity of the Scarlet Letter." Readings on Nathaniel Hawthorne (pp. 145-152). San Diego: Greenhaven.    Gartner, Matthew. "The Scarlet Letter and the Book of Esther: Scriptural Letter and Narrative Life." Studies in American Fiction (1995): 131-144.    Hawthorne, Nathaniel. The Scarlet Letter. New York: St. Martins, 1991.    Loring, G. B. (1850). "The Scarlet Letter and Transcendentalism." Massachusetts Quarterly Review [On-line], pp. 1-6. Available: http://eldred.ne.mediaone.net/nh/loring.html    Scharnhorst, Gary. The Critical Response to Nathaniel Hawthorne's The Scarlet Letter. New York: Greenwood, 1992.

James Vance Marshall based his novel walkabout on this.In this novel Es

James Vance Marshall based his novel walkabout on this.In this novel Mary the eldest of the two children is a very complicated and interesting character Walkabout Two American Children were stranded in the middle of the Australian desert due to an airplane crash. The children were stranded all by themselves or so they thought. The only reason they survived is because they met an aborigine boy. James Vance Marshall based his novel walkabout on this. In this novel Mary the eldest of the two children is a very complicated and interesting character. Throughout the novel we have very different reactions towards her and is one to whom we respond with a variety of different emotions. Before Mary and Peter meet the bushboy, Mary is the leader. She decides where they are going and what they are doing. There is a lot of responsibility being passed on to Mary as at thirteen she has to look after young Peter. I admire her for willingly taking control of both their fates. I feel this way because they are marooned in the middle of nowhere. Mary and Peters luc...

Messages of Strength and Pride in Three Poems

Poems from the Harlem Renaissance provide vibrance and energy for the reader as they enliven a culture and tradition never before seen in the United States.   The poems â€Å"Chicago,’ by Carl Sandburg, â€Å"The Harlem Dancer,† by Claude McKay, and â€Å"Mother to Son,† by Langston Hughes, all embody this strong culture through vivid images an lingering metaphors.   While they show the pride and substance of their subjects, the poems also hint at a bit of vulnerability as well.   Therefore, these three poems metaphorically illicit outward shows of strength and pride which hide pain, toil and even resentment underneath.Strength is an attribute of a person who has toiled and prevailed despite the overwhelming odds against him.   In the first half of the poem, â€Å"Chicago,† the first person speaker is addressing the city through a series of metaphors.   First, he addresses him as a serious of occupations which all require great physical strength but which do not have an association with upper class wealth or power:HOG Butcher for the World,  Tool Maker, Stacker of Wheat,  Player with Railroads and the Nation's Freight Handler (Sandburg, lines. 1-3).  These images create a masculine, hulking mood for the reader.   It is evident that life in this city requires brawn and even a cunning mind. The speaker notes the physical attributes of the city, which can be compared to a man:   Stormy, husky, brawling,  City of the Big Shoulders† (Sandburg, lines. 4-5).The city is personified as a hard-working and proud blue collar worker who may have to resort to underhanded dealings in order to survive.However, as the poem progresses, the metaphors change.   The speaker begins with a parallel series of descriptions – â€Å"wicked,† â€Å"crooked,† and â€Å"brutal,† to characterize the city along with a justification for each.   He notes the city is â€Å"sneering† but with  lifted head singing  so proud to be alive and coarse and strong and cunning† (Sandburg, lines. 18-19).The suggestion is that the city demands more than hard work; it sometimes takes pain and trickery from its inhabitants.   However, the messages notes that sometimes this behavior is necessary for survival, and that the city has no moral problem with crime, corruption and manipulation.Finally, the poem shifts to the metaphor not of a man at all, but a beast.   This creature is Fierce as a dog with tongue lapping for action, cunning  as a savage pitted against the wilderness† (Sandburg lines. 23-24).Now the city is not human, but savage and untamed, reflecting the problems it presents for the survival of its dwellers.   They must endure, the smoke, the dust, the teeth and the burden of the city and somehow manage to laugh,  even as an ignorant fighter laughs who has  never lost a battle† (Sandburg, lns. 34-35).The bottom line for this poem is pride. Sometimes the people had to be dishonest and brutal, but they have an immense pride in getting to where they are.   The personified images of the city portray all of these emotions for the reader.â€Å"The Harlem Dancer,† by Claude McKay, focuses on the single image and experience of a boy watching a girl dance.   While the image is softer, it can correlate with the message from â€Å"Chicago.†Ã‚   Of course, the undertone is that these dancing girls are prostitutes, tempting the boys to wrongdoing, but that is part of the magic of the experience for these Harlem youth.   Despite her degrading occupation, the dancer of note is elevated to idealistic proportions in the eyes of the speaker.First, she is half-clothed, and swaying, which reminds the young man, oddly, of a palm tree.   He notes,  To me she seemed a proudly-swaying palm  Grown lovelier for passing through a storm   (McKay, lines. 7-8).With this description, the reader understands that even the boy recog nizes that this girl does not belong in Harlem.   After all, no palm trees grow anywhere near Harlem; they are products of more tropical, exotic climates, as is the dancer.   He also insinuates that she has endured hardships herself, the storm he notes, and finds her more attractive for having survived those hardships.Next, the speaker notes the melodic, otherworldly quality of her voice.   He says,  Her voice was like the sound of blended flutes  Blown by black players upon a picnic day (McKay, lines, 3-4).  he airiness of her voice and their comparison to prayers places the girl in an almost angelic realm, oddly juxtaposed to her actual position as a prostitute. This angelic nature is further emphasized by her â€Å"gauzy† dress, her graceful body, and her â€Å"shiny curls.†Ã‚   To the speaker, she is perfection, something he has never before experienced.However, underneath the beautiful figure of the dancing girl is something else, something that the bo y eventually notices.   She is not the strong and serene figure he initially perceives.   She is, in his words, not there.   He notesBut, looking at her falsely-smiling faceI knew her self was not in that strange place (McKay, lines 13-14).The speaker comes to realize that she is not truly the confident and strong person that he initially perceived her to be.   In order to get through her day, she has to somehow transport herself elsewhere, and he has bought into it for a while.   She is not ideal or perfect but has had her own shares of struggles and deceptions.The poem â€Å"Mother to Son,† by Langston Hughes, also illuminates the theme that life is a struggle, but one that should make a person proud.   The speaker is an African-American mother who is attempting to relate a life lesson to her son.   She uses a metaphor of a crystal staircase to try to emphasize the hardships she has endured in getting to the place she is now.   The clever analogy notes that a crystal staircase would be smooth and easy to climb, unlike the experience the mother relays:Well, son, I'll tell you:  Life for me ain't been no crystal stair.  It's had tacks in it,  And splinters,  And boards torn up,  And places with no carpet on the floor —  Bare. (Hugues, lines 1-7)Her life journey was painful and filled with obstacles, and she wants her son to realize this so that he will be ready for his own obstacles and hardships in life.   Ã‚  She does not want him to grow up expecting to have things handed to him, but to expect to have to work hard for the things he wants.Another message that she wants to convey to her son is that he should never give up despite these hardships.   She wants to encourage him:So boy, don't you turn back. Don't you set down on the steps ‘Cause you finds it's kinder hard (Hughes, lines 14-16).In addition to warning him about the condition of the stairs and the difficulty of traversing them, the mother is also w arning her son of the dangers.   She notes that sometimes the stairs are dark, and she warns him against falling.   Of course, the grand metaphor for life is apparent.   Life is sometimes dark, full of pitfalls, and daunting, but she has continued the journey and is endeavoring to make her son do the same.She is not making the journey sound easy; clearly, they were not the privileged individuals, but she is attempting to instill endurance through her message.   After all, she is still climbing the stairs, and if she can do it, so can he.All three of these poems address issues of life and perseverance.   None of the lives described seem easy.   Life in â€Å"Chicago† is compared ultimately to a beast that laughs and sneers.   Life as   Ã¢â‚¬Å"TheHarlem Dancer† is empty for her, as she continually desires to be somewhere else.   Life on the broken staircase is uncertain and treacherous.   However, all three scenarios represent the continual toil of lif e, and the pride that these individuals have.   They may not have riches, easy jobs, or crystals stairs, but they have their work ethic and their sense of self-worth, and that is all that matters.WORKS CITEDMcKay, Claude.   â€Å"The Harlem Dancer.† Retrieved 9 April 2007 fromhttp://www.poetry-archive.com/m/the_harlem_dancer.htmlSandburg, Carl.   â€Å"Chicago.† Retrieved 9 April 2007 from http://carl-sandburg.com/chicago.htm

Product Team Cialis Getting Ready to Market Essay

Q1. In 2002, Viagra was the only clinically proven, FDA approved medication for Erectile Dysfunction (ED) on the market (Cialis – Dec 2003, Levitra – Sept 2003). Viagra had the highest brand recognition of any pharmaceutical product on the market. It had generated over one billion dollars in annual sales for 3 consecutive years since its introduction in 1998. In 2002, Viagra accounted for 5.3% ($1.73 billion) in sales of Pfizer’s annual Revenue of $32.37 billion, compared to 4.3% ($1.3 billion) of total revenue ($29.5 billion) in 2000. Viagra was expected to continue to lead the ED market due to its unsurpassed medical profile. Future Viagra sales growth was expected to come from increased patient presentation and physician diagnosis. Direct-to-consumer advertising has been effective in encouraging more customers to see a physician about ED. Even though Lilly ICOS and Bayer were in the process of bringing their products to market, Viagra was the front-runner and expected to retain its advantage in the ED market. A short half-life of approximately 4 hours, interactions with fatty foods, blue visions, and interactions with other medications like nitrates, are considered some of the weaknesses of Viagra. Q2. Our strategic Market segmentation for ED treatment is based on the types of population, by age and sex (socio demographic segmentation). The options available for market segmentation are: the concentration strategy, multi segment strategy, usage segmentation, and cohort segmentation. We believe Cialis should target the following segments: Usage segmentation – Lilly ICOS has the advantage of knowing which group is using ED medications (data from PCP’s, urologists and pharmacies). By using this data readily available, they can not only target the current users, but also the dropouts and dissatisfied customers. A large percentage of Viagra users did not refill the prescription. A significant number of them were not happy with the end-result after taking the medication, since duration of the effect was shorter than expected. Baby boomers (cohort segmentation) – because of increased prevalence of up to 60% of ED within this age group. Psychographic segmentation – age specific (40 – 60+) – as ED is increasingly more common in this age group, varying 20% to 60 %.  Spouse or partners (during their physician office visits) – 80% of the men using ED medication are married or living together. Q3. Cialis could either position itself as a â€Å"Market Challenger† or â€Å"Market Niche.† As a â€Å"Market Challenger,† the introduction of Cialis to the marketplace means that the dominance of Viagra is confronted, having alternatives to treat erectile dysfunction. However, the Lily ICOS team could not ride on this wave alone and would need to create brand recognition and loyalty. For doing so, they would need to ensure that consumers recognized Cialis as the solution to ED and not only as an alternative. The pro for Cialis is that they have a superior product; however, they are up against Viagra, with the reputation as pioneer of ED management in the marketplace. However, as a â€Å"Market Niche,† Cialis could segment their market to incorporate the emotional aspect of the product and its positive social implications in relationships, an aspect which the Viagra marketing team did not address. Therefore, to successfully create this concept, Lily ICOS involved its marketing team early into the development of Cialis, as this would enable them to better understand the core product, its benefits and how it affected the overall psychosocial perception of erectile dysfunction. One of the pitfalls of this approach would be that Cialis, a new product with little or no credibility in the market, would take extensive time and focused marketing effort to build a loyal consumer base. Based on their knowledge of the product, they would create more directed marketing research focusing on the needs, expectations and loyalty of the consumer. In addition, the marketing representatives would approach physicians regularly and remind them to offer Cialis as a potential solution to their patient’s condition and the overall benefits it could have on their social outlook and relationship. Basically, the Lily ICOS team would need to study the reasons why Viagra users were not repeat customers and bridge the gap from an initial user to loyal repeat business. Q4. The goal of the communication plan would be to ensure that Cialis gains credibility as superior product and consumers are pleased with its effect, both immediate and long lasting. Cialis need to demonstrate its potential to stand as an ideal solution to erectile dysfunction, not as an ‘Me too Viagra like’ alternative. Decreased side effects and the extended half-life of Cialis are the major marketing points to communicate (when positioned as â€Å"Market Challenger†); however, the positive social ramifications and increased self-confidence hence forth would add another level of emotional credibility to Cialis (when positioned as â€Å"Market Niche†). Q5. Our goal is to educate married couples and physicians. Patients will play a critical role for this drug to be successful, we need to be focus on their education with Direct to Consumer marketing, choosing programs that are watched by our target age group men who are married or with partners. This includes Television programs, evening news, and leisure sports programming, such as; Golf, fishing, or talk shows like Oprah, which is watched mostly by partners. There should also be emphasis on web-based marketing, including direct email to potential users, AARP sponsored Programs, etc. Advertisement should include magazines that cater to partners, such as; good housekeeping, cooking magazine, etc. Q6. Viagra was priced at $10 per pill. Since we are promoting Cialis as a better product, with its long-lasting effect and less side-effects – no blue vision or issues with meals, we would price it slightly higher. It is important for consumers to know the benefits of Cialis and create the awareness of a superior product. We would not want to price it significantly higher, since it would be difficult for consumers to switch to a new product from a product with a proven track record and marketed by one of the best companies in the Pharmaceutical industry. It is important for consumers to try Cialis, risk-free and feel the difference. This could be accomplished by providing free product samples, once satisfied; they would be the first customers. Q7. Pfizer has a number of options available at its disposal. It could wager the legal challenge stating the significant similarities between the products – a patent infringement lawsuit could be filed. However, Lilly ICOS could argue that there are significant differences in terms of onset, duration of action and food interaction, making Cialis different from Viagra. Pfizer could increase switching costs by incentivizing customers to return to their product. This could be achieved by offering one out of five prescriptions free, or a similar offer. Lowering the price of the prescription could also be considered a preemptive strategy. Lilly ICOS could offer free samples to practitioners during their advertising campaign and possibly offer a similar program later, for the frequent users. Pfizer could consider attracting new customers while using the increased customer awareness triggered by the Cialis marketing campaign. It could present Viagra as a trusted product with a long track record and safety. Pfizer could introduce new educational material about ED. Lilly ICOS could highlight the major differences between Viagra and Cialis, during their physician and DTC campaign. Lilly ICOS could target a specific segment instead of going head-to-head with the power of Viagra’s blockbuster title. Cialis could target couples, with a strong message towards intimacy and strong, durable relationships. This could result in increased marketing efficiency, as both partners would be targeted – avoiding the head-on competition with Viagra, which primarily targeted males.