Hiv In Manipur India Health And Social Care Essay

disrespect the occurrence that human immunodeficiency virus/ support has induce a serious creation health business enterprise in Manipur for the last decennaries touching stack of invariablyy(prenominal) last(predicate) social mathematical groups, the scholarship and sagacity layer of the customary population is a great deal mar by misconceptions taking to the marginalization of human immunodeficiency virus/AIDs and PLHAs. This article is ground on prolong field body of play carried f wholly let on in n primaeval(prenominal) territories of Manipur viz Imphal and Chandel in the twelvemonth cc8 with the designing to measure experience and chthonianstanding degree of the world-wide population sing human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immune deficiency syndrome, their cast towards PLHAs and to unearth the myth, belief and patterns colligate to human immunodeficiency virus/ aid which might open them to human immunodeficiency virus contagion. A gibe of 200 respondents i.e. blow respondents from each grease ingle spot of equal convention of virile and pis m unmatched and only(a)y boxate from the general population were call into questi nonp arild for the intent.Knowledge, positioning, behaviour, and pattern towards human immunodeficiency virus/ back up in Manipur, India a firebrand sectional go off.human immunodeficiency virus/ aid has beam corresponding wildfire since its initial sensing in 1981and has claimed 1000000s of lives across the universe. Harmonizing to the UNAID study, in that location were 33 meg batch populating with human immunodeficiency virus, 2.7 jillion muckle were pertly infect with human immunodeficiency virus and 2.0 million population died of back up in the twelvemonth 2007 unaccompanied ( UNAID study, 2007 ) . The spread of human immunodeficiency virus/ aid continues to compound with every passing twelvemonth in spite of attempts to control it by the claims across the contin ents. help continues to be genius of the slayer infirmitys of the 21st pennyury without all remedy so c venerable. It knows no social, hinge onual urge, caste and geographical leap thereby impacting larger number from all walks of disembodied spirit immature and archaic, rich and hap little, manlike and distaff, and crude across diametrical states of the universe.In India, human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immune deficiency syndrome has become hotshot of the intimately ambitious public health jobs. The freshman human immunodeficiency virus/ aid exemplification in India was detected in 1986 at CMC, Vellore, from alliance samples perplexn from commercial rouse workers in Madras. Since so, it has spread heterogeneously and steadily to all the some(prenominal) different(a) States and Union districts. India is now, the 3rd largest human immunodeficiency virus/ assist affected state in the universe and remains the largest in Asia ( NACO, 2007 ) . The ful l think of batch populating with human immunodeficiency virus/ help ( PLHAs ) in India in 2007 was estimated to be 2.31 million ( 1.8-2.9 million ) . Out of this, 39 % of PLHAs be estimated to be young-bearing(prenominal)s ( Technical brief, NACO, 2007 ) . Hetero versed is still the oerriding expressive style of human immunodeficiency virus transmittal in India. However, the transmittal form of human immunodeficiency virus in India is uneven with southern provinces describing much than(prenominal) of straight outside(a) transmittal than the northern provinces. In the north eastern provinces, it is a junto of some(prenominal) guessing drug users and unprotected finish up. sise provinces in India describe high human immunodeficiency virus prevalence of to a greater extent(prenominal) than 1 % among distaff p atomic number 18nts go toing ante-natal clinic. Manipur is one much(prenominal) half a dozen provinces excessively Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra , Tamil Nadu and Naga convey. With b atomic number 18ly 0.2 % of the state s entire population, yet bestow astir(predicate) 8 % of India s entire human immunodeficiency virus positive instances, help has emerged as a new and serious public wellness exigency in Manipur.though the major transmittal path in Manipur still remains through and through hit drug users ( IDUs ) , evokeual transmittal is non far behind. A recent one-year piquet surveillance study ( NACO, 2006 ) revealed that human immunodeficiency virus prevalence among IDUs has well come down every endow the old senesces only Manipur still has human immunodeficiency virus prevalence of IDUs in a higher place 10 % . The quick addition in human immunodeficiency virus transmittal through insecure energize in the province in recent measure is extremely refering. The prevalence of human immunodeficiency virus among young-bearing(prenominal) sex workers ( FSW ) in Manipur is 13.07 % , sweep uping only if to Mahara shtra ( 17.9 % ) and among work forces contracting sex with work forces ( MSM ) is 16.4 % . ( human immunodeficiency virus sentinel surveillance/ technological brief, NACO ) . Vertical transmittal of human immunodeficiency virus infection from hubby to get get marry monogamous marry woman in Manipur is etymologizing impulse over the last fewer old climb ons with a study of more than 1 % prevalence of human immunodeficiency virus among womanish parents go toing prenatal clinic.human immunodeficiency virus/ help is progressively acute every behind of societal strata reservation even to the remotest body politic in Manipur. Negi K.S et.al ( 2006 ) in their be sight that near of the persons in community do non eng while correct and complete training intimately HIV/ back up and its bar. The up-to-the-minute study of Manipur State acquired immune deficiency syndrome moderate Society ( MSACS ) revealed that Manipur has 40,000 HIV positive account instances among the gen eral population. HIV/ aid has therefore, go a serious public wellness job in Manipur, impacting concourse from all societal strata. Therefore, maintaining the widespread job of HIV in head, the present start on has been plan to measure the re comprehension and apprehension of the general population sing HIV/AIDS, their attitude towards PLHAs and to unearth the myth, belief and patterns related to HIV/AIDS which might expose them to HIV infection.Material and methodsThis was a cross-section and experimental come carried out in 2 territories of Manipur viz Chandel and Imphal from June 2008 till mid-November 2008. A sum of 200 respondents consisting of 100 respondents each from ii sub-divisions i. vitamin E Lamphelpat in Imphal West and Chandel in Chandel territories, were contacted in their short letter and interviewed. The respondents who were at least 18 old long times of age and higher up were indiscriminately selected and interviewed aft(prenominal) taking their in formed consent. Equal Numberss of young-begetting(prenominal) and pistillate respondents from two(prenominal)(prenominal) the territories were selected for the intent. A pre-tested questionnaire consisting of points on socio- presentgraphic background, learning, attitude, behaviour and pattern of HIV/AIDS was used for roll uping entropys from each of the respondents. The interview though, based on the questionnaire was a combination of closed and open-ended, and the interview was carried out in free flowing mode where respondents revealed beyond what is cosmos asked. This was supplemented by thespian observation.Imphal is the enceinte metropolis of Manipur and lies at the bosom of the province. It is a commercial and official hub of the province. There are different communi draw togethers populating in Imphal, the volume of which is be by the Meitei community learned by Muslims, different tribal groups, and non-Manipuri migrators. Imphal territory being the superi or metropolis check intos an frame over otherwise territories and has the best wellness attention installations obtainable in the province. Besides that, it is excessively place to some(prenominal) apex authorities and non-government offices including fluffed NGOs working for the public assistance of HIV/AIDS in the province. It alike has an border over other territories in footings of substructure, conveyancing and communicating, educational establishments, etc. Imphal is divided into two districts-east and west. The inelegant of the come was in dictated in Lamphelpat sub-division of Imphal-west territory. This sub-division is the nearly thickly live country ( 2001 nose count ) in Imphal West. legal age of the large number in Lamphelpat see Hinduism, Muslim, Meitei Sanamahi and Christianity. other country of the survey is Chandel territory, placed on the southern portion of Manipur 64km off from Imphal metropolis. It is inhabited by scheduled ethnic music prepon derantly be to the Naga cultural group followed by folks belonging to mentum/Zou cultural groups. There is as well a minor population of non-tribal communities belonging to Meitei, Muslim and non-Manipuri migrators. The field survey was carried out in the territory headquarter of Chandel sub-division where the survey population nominates of different Naga folk. Christianity is the dominant faith practiced among the tribal population of Chandel sub-division.selective teachings analysisData was entered in SPSS-Pc version 11.5/15 ( Check ) . Data was express in per centums and comparings mingled with the groups were through with(p) utilizing Chi-square trial. Unpairedt trial was performed for happening out battles mingled with groups for quantitative variables. p value little than 0.05 was considered fundamental.ConsequencesDemographic profile of the survey populationA sum of 200 respondents from both Imphal and Chandel territories were interviewed utilizing the shut in K ABP questionnaires. There were 100 respondents from each of the territory consisting of 50 anthropoid and 50 effeminate. The respondents in Chandel belonged to the tribal population of the Nagas enchantment that of Imphal belonged to the Meiteis.The respondents belonging to different age groups were maximal for 18-30 ( 45.5 % ) , 31-40 ( 29 % ) , 41-50 ( 16 % ) , 51-60 97 % ) and 61-above ( 2.5 % ) in locomote order.In footings of matrimonial side of meat, the respondents comprises for the most part of get hitched with work forces ( 54 % ) and adult young-bearing(prenominal) ( 61 % ) , followed by single work forces ( 44 % ) and adult effeminates ( 34 % ) .The educational position of the respondents in Imphal countries generally analyze till supplementary ( 33 % ) or up to alumnuss ( 33 % ) while in Chandel, most of the respondents studied till supplemental ( 30 ) . Gender wise, manlike respondents were ground to be more ameliorate than fe manlike. At least 39 % resp ondents in Chandel were each illiterate or learn special counseling as against 5 % respondents in Imphal. Overall, most respondents studied till secondary ( 31.5 ) followed by alumnuss ( 29 % ) .In footings of business, absolute majority of the respondents were un apply ( 28 % ) . Majority of feminine respondents were housewife ( 21.5 % ) . Employment position of the respondents was seen to be more ( 17 % ) in Imphal than in Chandel ( 7 % ) . Most of the respondents in Imphal comprise of unemployed ( 32 % ) , followed by those employed ( 17 % ) while in Chandel, woman of the house ( 29 % ) and pupils ( 26 % ) constitute the majority of the respondents.With escort to faith, 71 % respondents in Imphal follow Hinduism, 25 % Meitei Sanamahi, 3 % Christianity and 1 % other faith. As compared to this, all the respondents in Chandel follow Christianity.FindingssCognition From the survey, it was found that except for one respondent from Chandel, all the other respondents in both the survey countries have hear of AIDS. On farther question almost what AIDS unsoundness was, people of them could non snuff it correct do. Merely 5 % respondents in Imphal and 6 % respondents in Chandel gave even off reply to this. masculine respondents ( 8 % ) were somewhat conditioned most what AIDS disease was than pistillate respondents ( 3 % ) .With dissemble to the inquiry on what is HIV? 17 % respondents in Imphal gave by right wings reply as against 22 % right reply in Chandel. Gender wise, the regard of manful respondents ( 32 % ) with right chemical reaction was extremely most-valuable ( p & lt 0.000 ) than womanish respondents ( 7 % ) . 57 % respondents from Imphal and 47 % respondents in Chandel knew about the fight amid HIV and AIDS. A authorized exit ( p & lt 0.001 ) was ascertained between the two familiar activitys as anthropoid respondents ( 65 % ) who gave right repartee was signifi dejectiontly higher than egg-producing(prenominal) respo ndents ( 39 % ) . lecture the etiology of HIV/AIDS, quides of the respondents from both the countries i.e. 69.5 % were knowing about the motivative(prenominal) agent for HIV. The staying put down of respondents had misconceptions. A authorized fight of P & lt .020 and ( P & lt .006 ) was discoverd in Imphal and Chandel each in this facet. clack the manner of HIV/AIDS transmittal, bug out of the respondents i.e. & gt 90 % from Imphal and Chandel had right cognition about it when it concerns agitating custodies, give alliance transfusion, sacramental manduction towels, unprotected sex, expectorate/sneezing, and sharing septic acerate leaf. & gt 75 % had right cognition on mosquito bite, kissing/hugging, and infect female parent to child. A of the essence(p) contrast of P & lt 0.022 was noted in Imphal with regard to sharing of towels while in Chandel, a burning(prenominal) residuum of P & lt 0.001, P & lt 0.005, P & lt 0.001 was spy with regard to mosquit o bite, sharing of towels, and kissing/hugging severally.The response on the cognition of common symptoms of HIV/AIDS was met with 93 % and 87 % respondents mentioning lading impairment and passing of complexion/appetite as the most common symptoms severally of PLHAs. Respondents anyway considered fever/cough ( 79 % ) , profligacy ( 74.5 % ) , OI like T.B/ messcer ( 74 % ) , heyday on the tegument ( 73 % ) and lummox in inguens ( 71 % ) in go orders as other symptoms of PLHAs.On the beginnings of information on HIV/AIDS, bulk of the respondents i.e. & gt 90 % from Imphal country have mass media like Television ( topical anesthetic channel ) , wireless, composition course dramas, as their chief beginning. other, 72-88 % describe NGOs , and a negligible 18-4 % account church service service as their chief beginnings of information. No all of instant(predicate) dissimilarity was discovered in imphal. In contrast, Chandel reported high per centum i.e. a?84 % of res pondents acquiring information from church, and NGOs. A in-chief(postnominal) digression of response i.e P & lt 0.037, P & lt 0.002, P & lt 0.001 and p & lt 0.013 in the beginnings of information was noted in wireless, telecasting, newspaper and NGOs.AttitudeThe survey found that bulk of the respondents from both the survey countries i.e. 53.3 % were voicelessly in party favour of the attitudinal statements that HIV/AIDS is a penalty of perfection for bad behaviour. A important exit ( p & lt 0.012 ) was observed in Chandel as female respondents ( 68 % ) were extremely in favour of the statement than their male setback numbers ( 42 % ) .83.5 % and 91.5 % respondents anyways considered HIV/AIDS as a job chiefly associated with im honorable behaviour and injure drug users ( IDU ) severally. No important difference was observed in the above statements. Respondents ( 71.5 % ) besides opine that PLHA should non acquire married. A important difference P & lt 0.005 was obser ved in chandel with regard to this response. A humongous 94.5 % besides expressed their concern for compulsory HIV proving prior to unification while 85 % respondents voiced the demand for separate wellness Centre for PLHAs.46.5 % respondents verbalize PLHAs should be apart(p) to forestall farther transmittal while 46 % respondents tell they would non wish to mix with PLHAs. A important difference of P & lt 0.047 and 0.002 severally was noted in the above statements in chandel.67.5 % respondents besides state they would ensure a disgraced if they were infected with HIV/AIDS and 39.5 % respondents maintain that PLHAs should non be operated for any working(a) job. A important difference with regard to these statements was seen at P & lt 0.023 and p & lt 0.002 severally among male and female respondents of chandel.As view to pre-marital sex, merely mere 16 % respondents had no issue while the bulks were non in favour of it. There was a important difference of P & lt 0.040 in the response among male and female respondents in chandel.76.5 % respondents strongly believed that PLHAs are destined to depart Oklahoman or subsequently. No important difference was observed in both the two survey sites. However, when it comes to encyclopedism school kids about safer sex, whacking 96.5 % respondents agreed to it with no important difference seen in the response in both the two survey country.Sing corporate skirmish of the union to care for PLHAs, 84 % respondents were in favour of it. However, a important difference of P & lt 0.006 was noted merely in respondents of chandel.Behaviors and Practices The general mean age for the onset of sex was 23.37A5.73. However, it was noted that respondents in Chandel ( 20.21A4.08 ) had front onset of familiar intercourse than those in Imphal ( 27.36A4.99 ) . Out of 200 respondents, a sum of 113 respondents responded to this inquiry of age at first intimate brush. Education was found to be straight relative to the on coming of sex. slight educated respondents had earlier onset of sex than those educated 1s.The mean for age at join was 25.51A5.64 and instruction was found to hold some influence on the age of marriage every bit good. less(prenominal) educated respondents marry earlier than those educated 1s. A important difference was observed in the age of matrimony among female respondents from Chandel as the inference of matrimony begins every bit early as the age of 14 ( 20.42A41 ) .From the analysis, it was found that few or more respondents were found to hold probabilityous behaviour susceptible to HIV infection. 7.5 % respondents admitted holding been exposed to tear transfusion for assorted medical exam jobs. 41 % tell their organic structures have been injured by crisp objects such(prenominal)(prenominal) as wind vane/knife. The response to the latter statement was favourably high in chandel & gt 53 % . However, no important difference was observed.Negligible male respondents i.e. 3.5 % revealed to hold used opprobrious drugs such as intoxicant, diacetylmorphine, drugs, etc. No female was found utilizing opprobrious drugs. 62 % admitted being strong-armly involved with their spouse i.e. all with partner of non- symmetric inner spouse. Here, a important difference of P & lt 0.002 was observed in imphal with more male acknowledging to it. Another 10.5 % consisting generally of male respondents were found to be unwiseness in sex with non-regular spouse. A important difference of P & lt 0.018 in imphal and P & lt 0.001 in chandel was observed.With regard to utilize of coat in sex either with regular ( partner ) or non-regular internal spouses, 18.5 % respondents express they used it systematically. In chandel, a important difference of P & lt 0.004 was noted with male respondents utilizing golosh in sex.17 % respondents of the married twosome used home formulation of any signifier. 40.5 % respondents consisting largely of male respondents ut ter they have atcourseed awareness camps/programmes on HIV/AIDS. A important difference of P & lt 0.014 and p & lt 0.011 in imphal and chandel severally, was observed.It was besides noted that 34 % respondents had done HIV proving at least one duration in their lifetime. Another 39 % respondents showed their entrustingness to travel for HIV proving if necessary. More male respondents were seen to demo go awayingness to travel for HIV proving. A important difference was observed in both the survey countries i.e. P & lt 0.007 in chandel and P & lt 0.035 in chandel.Another 28 % respondents said they would delegate specific utensils if anyone in their household was infected with the virus. No important difference was seen here. 16 % respondents besides admit that people do insult/tease people with the virus. A important difference of P & lt 0.001 was observed as really less female respondents in chandel admit to PLHAs being teased/insulted. Another 50.5 % besides said spiritua l places are usually denied to PLHAs which is considered baronial place. The response from female respondents was more and a really high important difference of P & lt 0.000 was observed between the two genders in chandel.DiscussionThe present survey revealed that though all the respondents heard about AIDS, legion(predicate) of them did non cognize what AIDS precisely was. For most respondents, AIDS was principlely synonymous with sexual light- wringedness, dissipated behaviour and shooting drug users. This belief was chiefly propounded by the incident that most PLHAs in the survey countries were believed to be associated with at least one of the above timbres. uniform findings were reported by Viser MJ et.al, 2006 metalworker DJ. 2004.When it comes to HIV, really few respondents had right cognition about it despite the fact that AIDS has become a dining put off talk . Out of the few respondents that have right cognition on HIV, male respondents were more. This may be due to the fact that the overall educational position of male respondents was somewhat higher than their female face-to-face numbers. The other ground could be because male members of the parliamentary law are more outgoing, so are more updated about their societal environment through media beginnings like newspaper and magazines.Majority of the respondents besides could non province the difference between HIV and AIDS. It was interesting to observe that some respondents had wholly different word-painting approximately HIV as a separate disease non related to AIDS at all. Many of them were still oblivious(predicate) of the term HIV when used in isolation from AIDS. It was found that HIV and AIDS were frequently times used unitedly without truly understanding the difference between the two. Respondents from Imphal were found to hold somewhat punter cognition about HIV than respondents from Chandel. This could be due to the fact that unlike respondents from Imphal, respondents i n Chandel had less or no entree to media such as newspapers, local channel, and street dramas, etc whereby HIV/AIDS instruction is accustomed out at regular intervals.Sing the manner of HIV/AIDS transmittal, bulk of the respondents had right cognition about it especially refering to the intravenous feeding primary manner of transmittal i.e. through insecure sexual contact, blood transfusion, sharing septic syringe and female parent to child transmittal. However, few respondents had misconceptions when it comes to contagion through mosquito bite, agitating custodies, sharing towel, coughing or sneeze, and kissing/hugging. These misconceptions is chiefly to irritate with the false beliefs that HIV/AIDS is genetical through any blood swap and organic structure fluids ( workout suits ) and as such any amour that makes direct contact with the blood as in the instance of mosquito or organic structure fluid is considered uncertain. Therefore, there is pressing necessity to sensitise mightily the general population about the right manner of HIV/AIDS transmittal. Similar findings in the simple eye of deficiency of meet sensitization/education on HIV/AIDS taking to misconceptions, was besides reported by Hartwig K.A et.al 2006. As was observed in the analysis, legion(predicate) of the respondents from chandel tokenly female respondents tend to trust on information obtained from local chitchats, which are frequently times deflower by hyperboles and misconceptions responsible for stigmatisation and favoritism of PLHAs and the disease HIV/AIDS.The misconceptions refering to HIV/AIDS was closely related to the ways through which information about the disease is obtained. Respondents from Imphal had mass media like local channel ( T.V ) , and newspaper, etc as their chief beginning of information whereby HIV/AIDS instruction is given out by dependable beginnings whereas, in Chandel, media crop was negligible. This could be explained on the footing of inaccessi bility to local channel ( T.V ) and newspaper. In Chandel where cent per centum of the respondents are Christians, church act as one of the major beginnings for distributing information/ acquaintance on HIV/AIDS. It was found during participant observation that non all church leading were decently trained nor good weaponed with information on HIV/AIDS yet many of the church leadershiphip did non waver to reprobate HIV/AIDS as a shameful, ugly and shameful disease fated to bechance upon promiscuous and im virtuous soulfulness in the caller. So, church members were encouraged to pattern abstention from sex boulder clay matrimony and be in sync with the scriptural moral rule so as to countermand HIV/AIDS disease. This could be one of the grounds why stigmatisation of PLHAs was more terrible in Chandel than in imphal.It is besides interesting to observe that female members of the society in both the survey country were found to be social aware i.e. what society thinks and were more prone to take part in and trust on local chitchats which is largely influenced by socio-cultural feelings than medical truth. Therefore, it is non surprising that more jut out of female respondents had scruples on HIV/AIDS and stigmatisation towards PLHAs.Another interesting thing to note was in the manner how people perceived PLHAs. Knowledge on the symptoms of HIV/AIDS patients revealed that many of the respondents considered loss of cargo and jumble color, organic structure roseola, etc as the major symptoms of HIV/AIDS. This cognition supposedly comes from the cultural belief that most PLHAs in the survey country physically discover such symptoms. However, lost of weight and skin color is non medically sole to PLHAs and as such, if non decently sensitized on this, it will take to the incorrect premise that anybody with weight lost or skin color who may non needfully be infected with HIV/AIDS have a strong potency, if non already, to be stereotyped and marginalized as PLHAs .Data besides shows that a massive figure of respondents still see HIV/AIDS as immoral disease or diseases of shooting drug users. A big figure of respondents from chandel besides considered HIV/AIDS as penalty of divinity fudge for bad behaviour. This belief as study was chiefly influenced by which HIV/AIDS is transmitted i.e. through insecure sex and sharing of septic panpipes. It may be mentioned here that sexual promiscuity and shooting drug users are culturally viewed in the society as walk outen or immoral individual in both the survey country and as such, anybody practising any of the said behaviour are by and large considered immoral and therefore, stigmatized. This could be one of the chief grounds why HIV/AIDS is extremely stigmatized since it is believed to be largely associated with people of low morality or whose moral book of factss are questionable in the society. Notwithstanding the fact that many acquitted female PLHAs may acquire infected through t heir partner or some could hold been infected through accidental blood transfusion, PLHAs are by and large regarded as wayward in the look of the society and as such, are stigmatized. The other grounds stated for HIV/AIDS being considered as the most stigmatized disease is besides because of the nature in which PLHAs, at an advanced phase of the disease, died an ugly decease, physically looking awfully haggard with superfluous like build and complete loss of one s natural skin color and medically, from multiple timeserving infections. However, the physical perceptual experience may non ever be true for all PLHAs.Another noteworthy observation made in both the society was refering to the prevalence of gender disparity when it comes to morality and promiscuousness. Culturally, sexual promiscuousness and immoral behaviour such as drug and intoxicant maltreatment, or waywardness are tabooed yet society tends to be more tolerant towards male members than female. It is an unfastened inscrutable for male members in the society to be concured more readily than female despite go againsting unsanctioned societal norms. This explains why many of the female respondents expressed that they would experience abashed if infected with HIV/AIDS, a disease symbolic of immoral behaviour. This determination is in conformance with the findings of smith DJ, 2004.A disagreement between cognition and behavior/practice of the people towards PLHA was besides observed. Though most respondents demuring few were alert about the primary manner of HIV/AIDS transmittal, they admitted to hold maintained some distance or reserve in mixing with PLHAs despite cognizing good that making so will in no manner put them at encounters. grayish LA and Marle S, 1991 reported similar observations. This could plausibly be a instance of extent cultural stigmatisation of PLHAs in general whereby common people fear the stigma of being stereotyped by tie ining with PLHAs.Respondents besides expres sed the feeling that PLHAs should hold separate wellness Centre on the land that it will be safer for both the infected and non-infected population as they could non support the instruments of wellness attention Centre to be to the full safe from HIV infection. Majority of the respondents besides viewed that PLHAs should neither acquire married nor have kids as making so will merely increased the figure of PLHAs who in all chance will merely populate to endure and died a agonizing decease. However, few people were of the position that every bit long as PLHAs marry amongst themselves, that should non be a job.Since HIV/AIDS is a extremely stigmatized disease bulk of the respondents expressed the demand for mandate HIV proving between twosomes prior to marriage so as to avoid a day of reckoning hereafter as was put in by many respondents. This is because of the belief that HIV/AIDS is a catching and an incurable disease which when infected will invalid and shorten the life span of the individual concern. As one respondent said one time you get infected with HIV/AIDS, it is for supports and you can non run off from it instead you ll decease with and by it . The stigmatisation towards PLHAs is besides revealed in that the general populations tend to hold forbidly preconceived impression about anyone infected with HIV/AIDS even if that individual happens to be chastely well behaved. condescension holding negative perceptual experiences about HIV/AIDS, when it comes to corporate concern of the people towards PLHAs, bulk of the respondents from both the countries expressed their smell of taking duty to care for PLHAs. However, the faculty of this statement may non defy societal stigma as disagreement between cognition and pattern has been discussed in old statements. One of the grounds for having such duty could be due to the humanist side of adult male underlining other negative feelings. The humane nature is highlighted farther when the respondents said P LHAs should seek medical aid at the earliest with a cautiousness that all patients seeking surgery should be thoroughly tested for HIV/AIDS.Prenuptial or extra-marital sex was non favored by many and more so in Imphal. Respondents in Imphal were somewhat more reserved about sex than those from Chandel. In Imphal country, prenuptial and adulterous sex was seen more as societal taboo while in Chandel it was more to make with the misdemeanor of scriptural moral rule besides it being considered socio-cultural sacred as good. Few respondents largely male, had neutral position on this, stating it was a affair of personal pick. It may besides be mentioned here that by and large people have reserves about discoursing sex and gender in the unfastened or in public because of the cultural education whereby treatment of sex or gender is confined to or between married twosome. A survey by Goyal RC, et al 1994 Hartwig KA et.al, 2006 besides reported similar findings on the reserve of openly discoursing sex and gender.Another interesting characteristic noted in this survey was the instalment of sex for both male and female and the age at matrimony. The overall second-rate age for the induction of sex was 23.37A5.73 old ages. The overall come age at matrimony observed in the survey was 23.04A5.22 and 28.65A4.52 old ages for both female and male severally. The average age at matrimony in the survey site was found to be above the legal age at matrimony in India which is 18 for female and 20 one for male. Here, instruction is seen to play an of import function in detaining induction of sex and age at matrimony. A important difference was observed in the age at matrimony among female respondents from Chandel where the induction of matrimony begins every bit early as the age of 14 ( average 20.42A4.1 old ages ) . This may be because female respondents largely in-between age in Chandel had small or no instruction at all. Besides instruction, cultural procreation is beside s seen to hold indirect impact on the age at matrimony. The paternal construction of the society in both the survey country is such that male members of the household are given penchants over female in any affairs as it is through male line that coevals of the household is continued.Analysis of sexual behaviour and patterns besides revealed that most of the respondents who do non see themselves at being hazard to HIV infection were in fact, practising hazardous sexual behaviour. Quite a figure of respondents admitted practising insecure sex within and out of doors matrimony. Though, sexual relation outdoors matrimony is a socio-cultural tabu, yet it is non purely upheld. theoretically and culturally, bulk of respondents were non in favour of sexual relation outside of matrimony. However, during the survey, it was found that such cultural apprehension of sexual tabu did non truly forestall some of them from humoring into it as was admitted by few respondents. The sexual behaviors /practices of male respondents were at higher hazard for HIV infection than female respondents. This could be due to the prevalence of gender disparity in the societal set up whereby society is more tolerant towards male promiscuousness and immoral behaviour than that of female. As such, female respondents from both the country were more reserved for the obvious fright of shame and incurring stigma. Therefore, none of the female respondents from Imphal admitted to hold indulged in extra-marital matter while in Chandel, a negligible figure of them reluctantly admitted indulging to it after initial equivocation. Male respondents were relatively found to be more blunt and unfastened about their indulgence in sexual relationships in and outside of matrimony.For those respondents who admitted to hold engaged in tabooed sexual relation, really less figure of them admitted utilizing rubberize systematically. Here, it may be noted that despite many of them accepting rubber as a good optio n for safer sex, it is non being used systematically on the land that rubbers do non give full sexual satisfaction. The ground given to explicate was that culturally rubber is stigmatized and is considered meant for sexually promiscuous people. Condoms are besides believed to hold inauspicious backwash on adult females wellness and as such rule of it, in most cases is sooner ruled out. In instance of married twosome, usage of rubber is considered non a necessity as the socio-cultural significance of matrimony is for the intent of reproduction and sexual fulfilment. Therefore, usage of rubber is merely taken as blockading the really intent of matrimony. This is one of the grounds why some respondents who admitted of fall backing to household planning pet preventive pills. A survey carried out in rural Lebanon by Kulczycki A, 2004, reported similar findings on the usage of rubber and the stigma attached to it.It was besides observed that some of the participants had undergone bloo d transfusion for either medical or surgical grounds, increase the opportunities of HIV transmittal. Many respondents were willing to accept PLHAs and even take duty for them but this is contradicted by the admittance that they would non needfully hope PLHAs to be neither a alternative individual for any socio-religious event nor a spiritual figure in the society because harmonizing to the local people, a spiritual figure should be person whose moral character does non offend the normative moral Torahs of the society whereas in the instance of PLHAs, their moral character is ever questioned and as such can non keep a spiritual place unless the individual in inquiry rightfully repents and take a repentant, reform life. last From the analysis of the present survey, it can be concluded that false socio-cultural impression of HIV/AIDS as a morally corrupting disease is taking precession over medical facts, taking after to stigmatisation and favoritism of PLHAs in the society. The su rvey revealed that although bulk of the respondents have high cognition about the four primary manner of HIV/AIDS transmittal, such cognition are frequently times marred by socio-cultural misconceptions. It can besides be inferred that behaviour of the people are greatly influenced by cultural beliefs instead than by medical facts. Therefore, incompatibility is observed between high cognition about the four primary paths by which HIV/AIDS is transmitted on one glove and high negative attitude towards PLHAs on the other manus. Local chitchats which are largely diluted with cultural misconceptions act as the fastest medium for the extension of intelligence on HIV/AIDS. Church elders/leaders particularly in chandel have strong influenced on people s attitude towards PLHAs. This could be one of the grounds why despite attempts from NGOs to educate people on HIV/AIDS, the disease is fast distributing in the survey country.Therefore, right(a) sensitisation of the people about HIV/AIDS a long the socio-cultural line is the demand of the hr in order to take several misconceptions which are responsible for the marginalisation of PLHAs. It is besides suggested that spiritual leaders should be given particular attending when sing of leaving proper instruction on HIV/AIDS in order that their influence on people may chase away cultural misconceptions taking to stigmatisation of HIV/AIDS. The survey besides may mind that stigmatisation of the disease was one of the substructure causes for the spread of HIV/AIDS in the country as fright of societal stigma and shame have disheartened many PLHAs to come out in the unfastened about their position thereby jeopardizing others in the procedure as such PLHAs continued to take a normal sexual life.RecognitionThis research is financed by UGC under the strategy of Rajiv Gandhi National Fellowship for ST/SC pupils to prosecute M.Phil/Ph.Daaaaaa..